First and Third Carlist Wars: Impact on the Basque Country
First Carlist War (1833-1840)
The main reasons for the war were a succession problem and tensions between liberalism and absolutism. It started with the appointment of a successor. Ferdinand VII invalidated the Salic Law and substituted the Pragmatic Sanction, naming his daughter Isabella as Queen. When Ferdinand VII died, two groups formed:
- Absolutists (supporting Carlos Maria Isidro)
- Liberals (supporting Isabella)
Isabella was only 3 years old, so Maria Cristina assumed the regency. The claim of Carlos
Read MoreCivil War Origins and Uprising: 1936 Spain
Origins of the Spanish Civil War: 1936
The origins of the Spanish Civil War can be traced to the deteriorating living conditions that followed the electoral victory of the Popular Front. The spring of 1936 was marked by clashes between right-wing organizations and leftist groups, who engaged in open struggle in the streets and universities. These confrontations, often involving militias and the Falange, created an escalation of violence that the government was unable to control.
The unrest also reached
Read MoreArmed Peace, World War I, and Interwar Europe
Armed Peace (1890-1914)
The period from 1890 to 1914 is known as the “Armed Peace.” It was characterized by the division of European powers into two opposing blocs:
- Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
- Triple Entente: France, Russia, and Great Britain
This division was fueled by an intense arms race and several underlying tensions:
- Germany’s ambition to become a major European power, putting it at odds with Great Britain and France.
- The Austro-Hungarian and Russian rivalry over influence
Spanish Opposition to Franco: Exile, Resistance, and Struggle
Opposition: Exile and Resistance
In the final phase of the civil war, more than four hundred thousand people associated with the Republic left Spain and came to France through the Pyrenees, or fled to northern Africa. Many of the refugees returned to Spain when the regime promised to take no action against those who had committed no crime, a promise that was not fulfilled. About two hundred thousand people remained in exile or only returned to Spain after Franco’s death. In France, they established
Read MoreMussolini’s Rise to Power: Understanding Italian Fascism
The Rise of Fascism in Italy
The March to Power of Fascism
The founder of fascism was Benito Mussolini. In 1919, Mussolini founded the Fascist Italian Milan Combat, an ultra-nationalist paramilitary group whose members were identified by the black shirt and a military cap. Its core was composed of very diverse people. The fascists positioned themselves as defenders of nationalist claims. One of their first violent actions was the destruction of the offices of the Socialist newspaper Avanti in 1919.
Read MoreLiberal Revolutions and Nationalism in 19th-Century Europe
Key Concepts of the 19th Century
Revolution: A collective expression of ideas by a group of people.
Liberalism: A physiological, economic, and political system derived from civil liberties, but it rejects collective freedom.
Declaration of Rights: A document outlining citizens’ rights.
Constitution: The fundamental, written or unwritten, form of governance for a sovereign state.
Nation: Citizens united by common laws, customs, history, ideology, and beliefs.
Nationalism: A social and political movement
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