Russian Revolution: Tsarist Russia to Stalin
The Russian Revolution
Tsarist Russia
Autocratic system: The Orthodox Church supported the army, political police, and bureaucracy.
Political opposition to the Tsar (Nicholas II):
- Popular (anarchists), agrarian-based (giving rise to the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs)).
- Russian Social Democratic Labour Party:
- Mensheviks: Moderate supporters of a liberal revolution before the socialist revolution.
- Bolsheviks (Lenin): In favor of the proletarian and peasant revolution. Importance of a vanguard party.
Crisis of the Bourbon Monarchy and the War of Independence
1. Crisis of the Bourbon Monarchy: The War of Independence
1.1 The Crisis of the Monarchy of Charles IV (1788-1808)
In the early nineteenth century, the monarchy of Charles IV was deeply tarnished. The reasons lay in a crisis of governance, with the key figures being the king, his wife Maria Luisa of Parma, and, above all, the valido Manuel Godoy.
To tackle the financial crisis generated by the continuous wars with France and the UK, Godoy ordered the confiscation of Church properties in 1798. This
Read MoreFeudal Society and Economy in the Ancien Régime
Manorial Rights and Feudal Jurisdiction
Manorial rights encompassed jurisdictional powers, allowing lords (seigneurs) to exercise public authority within a larger territory (the manor). This jurisdiction extended beyond their personal lands to include areas with allodial owners (landowners with absolute ownership). Lords also exercised royal prerogatives, including military service obligations, justice, and tax collection. They could wage war, make peace, mint currency, issue decrees, and judge individuals
Read MoreFernando VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and American Independence
Fernando VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and the Loss of Spanish America
In 1814, Fernando VII returned to Spain under the Treaty of Valençay. He rapidly moved to establish absolutism. This process was consolidated with the decree of May 4, 1814, which nullified the 1812 Constitution and the decrees of the Cortes of Cadiz. Fernando VII had significant support from the nobility and clergy, as evidenced in the “Manifesto of the Persians,” which rejected the liberal reforms of Cadiz.
However, neither absolutism
Read MoreDecolonization of Asia and Africa: A Comparative Study
Decolonization of Asia and Africa
Great Britain, Holland, and France were the three most important colonial powers in Asia. The independence of the colonies had peculiar features in each case.
Decolonization in Asia
British Colonies
In Great Britain, the process was relatively peaceful. India achieved its independence in 1947, but at the expense of the separation of Pakistan (a country with a predominantly Muslim population). It was followed by Burma and Ceylon (now called Sri Lanka) in 1948, and Malaysia
Read MoreModern Architecture Evolution: Post-War to 1960s
The Future of Architecture in Italy
Examples of modern, cutting-edge architecture include the Fiat car factory. In Germany, there was an exhibition on modern art. Nazi ideology brutally influenced pictures, posters, films, and public buildings. Hitler was regarded as the artist of the nation. An important work from this period is the Olympic Stadium.
Modern Masters After World War II
World War II disrupted the architectural impulse that gave rise to modern architecture. However, modern architecture
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