Spain’s Progressive Biennium & Unionist Government (1854-1868)
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
The elections were called under the laws of 1837, which allowed a progressive majority and the first appearance in Parliament by some House Democrats. The new government tried to restore the principles of progressivism. It also prepared a new constitution (1856), which failed to be enacted, and in 1854 drafted a progressive Councils Act in which mayors were elected by sufragio (suffrage). The most important action of the progressive government was the resumption
Read MoreMastering Assertiveness, Careers, and Communication
Assertiveness and Its Applications
Assertive behavior means standing up for yourself, but in ways which respect the rights of others. This distinguishes it from aggression (fight), which involves violating the rights of others, and from evasion (flight), which involves respecting the rights of others at the expense of your own.
Assertiveness is useful in the following contexts:
- Stating your own views
- Disagreeing with others’ views
- Making a request
- Refusing a request
- Offering criticism
- Responding to criticism
Scripting
Read MoreFranco’s Dictatorship in Spain: Consolidation & State
The Consolidation of Franco’s Dictatorship
Franco aimed to create a new state, a “regenerator of Spain,” which banished all ideas of liberalism and liberal democracy, as well as communism. It was based ideologically on a conservative, Catholic, and unitary conception of the state, contrary to all autonomous nationalist ideas.
A Totalitarian Regime
A new political system was established as a totalitarian system, with no constitution and no democratic freedoms. Franco concentrated powers and organized
Read MoreThe Enlightenment and 17th-Century European Conflicts
The Enlightenment: A Cultural Movement of the 18th Century
The Enlightenment was a cultural movement in 18th-century Europe that emphasized reason as the primary source of authority. It aimed to combat ignorance and superstition, fostering faith in human progress and personal merit. This era saw the rise of new economic theories:
- Physiocracy (Quesnay)
- Capitalism (Adam Smith)
The Enlightenment criticized absolutism and established the foundations of new political and social systems, notably liberalism.
Spain Under Alfonso XII: Politics and Reform
Alfonso XII’s Reign: Cánovas System and the 1876 Constitution
The reign of Alfonso XII marked the beginning of the Cánovas system of government, based on what Cánovas termed the “internal constitution” of Spain. This concept encompassed core ideals such as homeland defense, hereditary monarchy, individual freedom, and private property. Cánovas also established a two-party political system inspired by the English model, featuring only the *Conservatives* and the *Liberals*.
In the first parliamentary
Read More17th Century Spain: Socio-Economic Crisis & Golden Age
Economic and Social Developments in the Seventeenth Century
The seventeenth century is characterized by a socio-economic crisis caused by the following reasons:
- Reduction of the population (from 8 million to 7 million). The reasons were epidemics (plague), constant wars (Flanders, Portugal, etc.), emigration to the Indies, the decline in the birth rate by reducing the number of marriages, and the expulsion of the Moriscos.
- Monetary Policy. This consisted of altering the currency to deal with the financial