The Reformist Biennium: Agrarian and Labor Reforms in Spain
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
The period between April 1931 and September 1933 is known as the Reformist or Social-Azaña Biennium. During this stage, the provisional government underwent significant changes, with government policy inclined towards the center-left:
- The adoption of articles 26 and 27 of the constitution, concerning the issue of religion as a cause of division (October 1931) led to the resignation of Alcalá-Zamora and Miguel Maura. Both sought to lead the Republican right.
- The
The Spanish Civil War: A Summary of Events
The Spanish Civil War
Military Developments
Stages of the Conflict
The rebel army held the strategic initiative from the outset. The first day consolidated fronts in the Sierra de Madrid, Andalusia, and Aragon, which remained relatively stable throughout the conflict.
1) The Madrid Campaign
The rebels awaited the transfer of the Army of Africa. The loyalist fleet controlled the Strait of Gibraltar, but German and Italian aid allowed rebel troops to land. They gradually occupied parts of Andalusia and
Read MoreSpanish American Independence and Moroccan Protectorate
Spanish American Independence and its Aftermath
a) In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, a revolutionary consciousness developed in Spanish America. This was brought about by enlightened ideas, the demonstration effect of American independence, colonial economic expansion, administrative errors by the Monarchy, and the exclusion of natives. This consciousness reached its peak during the peninsular political crisis of 1808.
Upon the departure of Fernando VII of Spain and the start
Read MoreJohn Locke: Foundations of Liberalism and Natural Rights
John Locke’s Political Philosophy
Early ideas from the Stoics, and later Scholasticism, developed the concept of natural law. Scholasticism, in particular, linked this to divine law or ‘Providence,’ suggesting everything occurred according to a divine design. This supported a hierarchical view of society, predominant in Europe, where roles (worker, defender, ruler) were seen as divinely ordained, and power derived from God. While Machiavelli had previously questioned the source of power, the 17th
Read MoreLate 19th Century: Industry, Socialism & Imperialism
Late 19th Century Advances
- Oil: Introduced as an energy source in 1859, supplementing coal and steam. It found applications in industry and transportation.
- Electricity: Began replacing mechanical steam power, significantly improving lighting, telecommunications, and urban transport (e.g., electric trams).
- Steel Industry: Expanded rapidly with the widespread use of steel in ships, railways, bridges, and buildings. This era also saw the development of stainless steel and aluminum production.
- Chemical
The Russian Revolution and Interwar Period: Key Events
The Russian Revolution
The course of Russian history was significantly shaped by its relative isolation and backwardness compared to other European nations. Under the autocratic rule of the Czars, only limited reforms were implemented, such as the liberation of the serfs, which ultimately failed to alleviate the widespread misery of Russian peasants. The military disasters during World War I, coupled with the hardships endured by the Russian people, contributed to the downfall of the Tsarist regime.
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