Victorian England: Economic Power and Political Reforms
ENGLAND: Economic and Territorial Power. The reign of Victoria I (1837-1901), known as the Victorian era, saw the UK reach its greatest territorial expansion and consolidate its industrial development. It maintained traditional institutions and a parliamentary monarchy, advancing towards a democratic system. The country was not significantly affected by liberal revolutions; political developments occurred within a framework of institutional stability. The economic expansion was impacted by a prolonged
Read MoreRoman Impact on Britain and the English Language
English is not the native language of England. It was introduced by Germanic tribes who invaded Britain in successive waves. Around the mid-fifth century, the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes drove back the Britons, who were Celts. Celtic is the only substratum that Germanic peoples could find apart from Latin.
During the Old English period (c. 450-1150), the language came into contact with three other languages: those of the Celts, the Romans, and the Scandinavians. This section will focus on the significant
Spain’s Bourbon Era: Succession, Enlightenment, and Reforms
The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713)
Charles II died, naming Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV of France, as his successor, who became Philip V. This marked the arrival of the Bourbon dynasty.
Factions formed within and outside Spain, supporting either Philip V or Archduke Charles of Habsburg. This led to a civil war and a wider European conflict.
The rising French hegemony and the feared union of the French and Spanish crowns under the same monarch prompted Britain and the Netherlands
Read More20th Century European Political Systems and Conflicts
Stalin’s Dictatorship and the Great Purges
Joseph Stalin, who had held the position of Party Secretary since 1922, soon initiated a phase of concentrated power, using purges to eliminate any individual opposing his ideas. Between 1935 and 1938, Russian society was subjected to a process of ‘debugging’ or cleansing. Terror became the most common weapon in the hands of the political police. A new constitution, approved in 1936, announced ‘democratic freedoms,’ which were, in reality, exercised as a
Read MoreSpain Under Late Francoism: Economic Growth and Social Dynamics
The Franco Dictatorship: 1959-1975
The economic development that occurred in Spain during the Franco dictatorship (1959-1975) resulted in significant changes. The most important were: an increase in population, explained by a decrease in the mortality rate; the dominance of cities and tertiary activities; and a rural exodus of over 4 million Spaniards changing residence.
The industrial working class largely came from the countryside and therefore lacked professional qualifications. The middle classes
Read MoreUnderstanding the French Revolution: Key Events and Eras
The French Revolution: Causes and Context
The French Revolution was a dramatic period of change that included the fall of a government and the transformation of the social and economic order in France. France became bankrupt because privileged people didn’t pay taxes, and the royal family spent large amounts of money on palaces and luxury goods. In addition, the French state participated in costly military conflicts, such as the American War of Independence. To solve the national bankruptcy, King
Read More