Napoleon and the French Empire: Rise and Fall
The Napoleonic and French Empire
After numerous victories, France secured a dominant position in continental Europe. Napoleon maintained the French sphere of influence through extensive alliances and by appointing friends and family members to rule other European countries as French client states. Napoleon defeated Austria and Russia at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805), bringing almost all of Europe under his control. The only remaining enemy was England. France ruled the continent, but Great Britain
Read MoreThe Independence of Spanish America: Causes, Stages, and Key Figures
The Independence of Spanish America
The emancipation of Spanish America was one of the serious problems during the reign of Fernando VII, involving the independence of colonies within the American viceroyalties, divided into New Spain (Mexico), New Granada, Peru, and Rio de la Plata.
Causes and Features of the Independence Movements
Causes
- Influence of Enlightenment and Liberalism: The spread of Enlightenment ideals, such as the social contract, individual rights, and national sovereignty, along with
Espartero’s Regency: Pronouncements, Reforms, and Centralization
The Regency of Espartero
The Pronouncement
In 1840, numerous juntas organized in major cities. General Baldomero Espartero, architect of the Convention of Vergara and a popular hero, took charge of the rebel forces and took over the government. The Queen, forced by the movement of the juntas, decided to leave Spain rather than accept the progressive agenda. The country’s government passed into the hands of a ministry headed by Espartero as regent. This called elections that gave a resounding victory
Read MoreIndian Cultural and Historical Terms: A Glossary
Deprecating
Disapproving.
Cummerbunds
Waist sashes.
Hennaed Beard
A beard dyed red with henna.
Atheist
Someone who does not believe in God.
Sadhu
A Hindu holy or wise man, often an ascetic.
Pariah Dog
A stray mongrel dog, often ownerless.
Puranas
Sacred Sanskrit poems containing Hindu myths, legends, and genealogies.
Brahmanas
Hindu scriptures, part of the Vedas, detailing sacrificial rituals.
Emanation
Something originating or coming forth from a source.
Mantras
In Hindu and Buddhist traditions, a word, sound, or
Read MoreSpanish Civil War: Rebels, Republicans, and Daily Life
The Rebels: Beginning of a Dictatorship
The rebels aimed for military victory and a new fascist state, ending democracy and the republic.
Steps to Power:
- Junta de Defensa Nacional (each General controlled their area).
- October 1936: Francisco Franco became Generalísimo, Head of the Army, the government, and the new state, concentrating powers.
Political Measures:
- The Constitution and civil rights were banned.
- Political parties and trade unions were illegal.
- Censorship was imposed.
- Catholicism was established
The Old Regime, Enlightenment, and Revolutions: A Summary
The Old Regime: Social Structure and Absolutism
The Old Regime was a social system characterized by political and economic estates, absolutism, and an agricultural economy. The society was divided into estates, which were closed social groups. There were two main categories:
- Privileged: These groups did not pay taxes and held powers and political influence. They included the king, the nobility, and the clergy.
- Non-privileged: These groups paid taxes and were barred from political power. They included