Indigenous Agency: Shaping Spanish Colonial Rule in Latin America
It is tempting to assume that Indigenous intermediaries were no longer needed. According to this view, conquests were complete, and new colonial control solidified—leaving no space for native power. However, this ignores the evolving role Indigenous go-betweens continued to play. The empire was not self-sustaining; it was fragile, fragmented, and dependent on Indigenous cooperation. This essay argues that Indigenous agency not only persisted but was central to the colonial order—in law, diplomacy,
Read MoreSpain’s Economic Transformation and Social Unrest Under Franco
Economic and Social Changes
Technocrats prevailed, and members of Opus Dei secured important positions in Franco’s 1957 cabinet. While Opus Dei did not support political liberalization, it advocated for economic integration with Europe, which exposed Spain to democratic influences. The technocrats’ proposed measures were established in the Stabilization Plan (1959). This plan aimed to curb inflation, reduce government economic controls, and adapt Spanish economic policies and procedures to European
Read MoreNigerian Political Landscape: Essential Terms & Concepts
Fourth Republic of Nigeria
The current republican regime in Nigeria, established in 1999. It marked the return to democratic rule after years of military governance.
Olusegun Obasanjo
A former Nigerian President and the first President of the Fourth Republic (1999-2007). A Southern Christian, he played a crucial role in bringing democratic rule back to the nation. He also helped establish the Second Republic.
Umaru Musa Yar’Adua
President of Nigeria from 2007 to 2010. A Northern Muslim, his election
Read MoreSpanish Civil War: Origins, Key Events, and Aftermath
The Spanish Civil War: Origins, Key Events, and Aftermath
The Outbreak of Conflict (July 1936)
In July 1936, a section of the army, along with Falangists and traditionalists, staged a coup against the Second Spanish Republic. The rebels quickly gained strength. On July 19, José Giral, then Prime Minister, gave weapons to the militias of the unions and parties aligned with the Popular Front. Spain was thus divided into two distinct areas, marking the brutal outbreak of the Civil War.
International
Read MoreLate 19th Century Architecture: Iron, Industry, and Urban Transformation
The Second Industrial Revolution led to significant economic development that continued until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. The expansion of industrial economies and business concentration involved the consolidation of the capitalist system and the emergence of new industrial powers, both inside and outside Europe, surpassing Britain. Furthermore, the predominance of large banks and industries was solidified, while the tendency to reduce production costs, fix prices, and eliminate competition
Read MoreFranco’s Final Years and Economic Transformation (1959-1975)
Political Evolution and Regime Continuity
Organic Law of the State (1967)
In 1967, the Organic Law of the State was passed. It was the last fundamental law of the Franco regime and was intended to ensure the continuity of the system. Spain was structured as an “organic democracy,” but the law was not new, nor did it adequately address the changes in society. The only significant innovation was the direct election of some of the “family representatives” in the Cortes.