Ancient Greek and Roman Architecture: Temples, Orders, and Urbanism
TMA1
Doric Order
Definition: Doric order is characterized by a base (krepis or krepidoma) with three steps (the upper one is the stylobate, the lower ones are the stereobates), and fluted columns without a base, directly on the stylobate. The fluting (grooves) are typically 20 in number and are sharp-edged (no fillets between them). The column tapers upwards. The capital consists of a cushion-like echinus and a square tablet called an abacus. The entablature is composed of an architrave, a frieze
Read MoreUnderstanding the Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change
The Greenhouse Effect
The term greenhouse effect describes the mechanism by which atmospheric gases, particularly carbon dioxide, trap heat near the Earth’s surface. The glass roof of a greenhouse transmits visible light and absorbs infrared (IR) radiation emitted, thus trapping heat. In a way, carbon dioxide acts as a glass roof, except that the temperature rise in a greenhouse is mainly due to restricted indoor air circulation. The transfer of carbon dioxide to and from the atmosphere is an essential
Read MoreHuman Evolution: From Archaic Homo to Modern Society
The Origin, Evolution, and Dispersal of Modern Humans
Early Archaic Homo
Early Archaic Homo: < 500,000 BP; Africa, Asia, Europe (Kabwe, Atapuerca). Key examples include Kabwe (Broken Hill) in Africa, Atapuerca in Europe, and Dali in China. These are all skeletal remains.
Physical appearance, technology, subsistence, “teamwork and tools”; Levallois Culture: Mousterian. The stone tool culture in which Neanderthals produced tools using the Levallois technique. Levallois is a distinctive method of stone
Read MoreBeach Erosion: Causes, Impacts, and Prevention Strategies
Beach Formation and Types
Beaches are landforms made of loose sediments shaped by wave dynamics. They form where waves and currents deposit sediment along the coast. Beach types vary with tide changes and are broadly grouped into:
- Free Beaches: Sediments are trapped by topography.
- Comet Tail Beaches: Develop behind obstacles like islets or reefs.
- Tombolo Beaches: Connect the coast to an islet.
- Ear Beaches: Derived from tombolo beaches, reduced by strong currents.
- Coastal Line Beaches: Formed from abundant
External Geodynamic Processes: Landslide and Flood Risks
Landslide Risks from External Geodynamic Processes
Flood Risk: Causes of Natural Inundations
Causes of Climatic Origin
- Coastal cyclones
- Extreme weather events
- Rapid ice and snow melt
- Temperate climates with marked periods of drought followed by torrential rainfall
Obstruction of Natural River Channels
- Direct anthropogenic causes: Construction in riverbeds, dam breaks, waterworks, sudden water release, mining and tailings
- Indirect anthropogenic causes: Deforestation, loss of vegetation cover, poor farming
Environmental Pollution: A Threat to Human Existence
Environmental pollution is the biggest menace to the human race on this planet today. It means adding impurities to the environment. The environment consists of Earth, water, air, plants, and animals. If we pollute them, then the existence of humans and nature will be hampered.
The Escalating Problem of Deforestation and Global Warming
It is true that trees are being cut down rapidly. Our Earth is becoming warmer. If pollution continues, the day is not far when our Earth will be a boiling pan and
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