Construction Materials and Their Properties
Construction Materials
Construction is a material-intensive activity consuming vast quantities of resources like glass, metal, and PVC. Concrete is a preferred choice for building and infrastructure projects. It’s a composite of inert materials (sand and gravel) and a binder, cement. A chemical reaction with water (hydration) hardens the mixture, increasing its strength and rigidity. Additives can enhance color, setting time, and properties like waterproofing. Concrete’s initial pasty form allows
Read MoreSoil Colloids: Classification, Clay Minerals, and Formation
Soil Colloids: The Active Fraction of Soil
Colloids represent the active fraction of soil, playing a crucial role in soil properties and fertility.
Classification of Soil Colloids
Soil colloids can be broadly classified into two main categories:
- Organic: Humified fraction of organic matter.
- Inorganic: Silicate clays (phyllosilicates), Al and SiO2 gels (allophane and imogolite), and oxides and hydroxides of Fe and Al.
Nature of Clay Minerals
It’s important to differentiate between clay minerals and the
Tectonic Plates: Earth’s Dynamic Surface Explained
Understanding Tectonic Plates
A tectonic plate is one of the large, moving sections that form the Earth’s outermost layer, the lithosphere. These plates fit together like a patchwork puzzle and are shaped by the convection currents moving within the Earth’s upper mantle. They effectively float above the semi-fluid asthenosphere.
The Theory of Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that explains the structure of the Earth’s surface. It states that the lithosphere is divided into several
Read MoreEarth’s Geochemical and Dynamic Units: A Comprehensive Analysis
Geochemical Units
Geochemical units are defined by the composition of the chemical materials that make them up.
Crust
The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth, extending from the surface to the Mohorovičić discontinuity. There are major differences in thickness and composition between continental and oceanic crust.
1) Continental Crust
The continental crust ranges from 25 to 70 km in thickness. It is very heterogeneous, consisting of dense quartz rocks, feldspars, and micas. The lower half is
Read MoreEnvironmental Impact of Waste, Rubber, and Industrial Processes
Waste Incineration
48. How do normal waste incinerators operate? They operate at 1,100 °C with a gas retention time of 2 seconds to achieve 99.99% destruction of incinerated waste. The calorific value of the waste stream is used as fuel while achieving the total destruction of the material.
Rubber Recycling Challenges
49. Owing to the chemical reactions that irreversibly set the rubber during processing, the biggest problem worldwide is that rubber cannot be recycled and is not biodegradable. Because
Read MoreHarnessing Alternative Energy Sources for a Sustainable Future
Alternative Energy
A. From the Sun (Renewable):
The big problem is that solar energy is widely dispersed and needs to be concentrated.
Architectural Systems Liabilities:
It’s possible to heat or cool a house using only sunlight. Planting trees near buildings can reduce air conditioning needs by 60%. Trees act as biological solar collectors, passively cooling buildings by providing shade and evaporating water, which cools the environment.
Solar Power Plants:
These are facilities where energy is obtained