Understanding Earthquakes and Tsunamis: Risks and Prevention
Understanding Earthquakes and Tsunamis
Tsunamis and earthquakes are natural catastrophes, unlike technological disasters caused by human activities, such as the Bhopal gas leak that caused a toxic cloud.
Natural Risk Factors
Natural risk is the likelihood of damage occurring to the population of an area, driven by natural events. A natural phenomenon is not a risk in itself but becomes a threat to humans.
The value reaching the hazard depends on:
- Hazards that can potentially cause an event and its frequency.
Understanding Weather Elements: Insolation, Clouds, and More
Weather Elements
a) Insolation
Insolation refers to the amount of incoming solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. In Spain, insolation is at its maximum during the summer and at its minimum during the winter.
b) Cloud Cover
Cloud cover describes the atmospheric conditions where the sky is covered to a greater or lesser degree by clouds. Cloud cover is typically at its minimum in summer and at its maximum in winter. Cloud height is measured using a ceilometer.
c) Temperature
Temperature is the degree
Read MoreSolid Waste, Renewables, Nuclear, Sewage, and Water Analysis
Solid Waste
Definition: Solid waste refers to all waste materials except hazardous waste, liquid waste, and atmospheric emissions. Solid wastes are generated by commercial, industrial, and institutional sources.
Types of Solid Waste
- Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Comprises small-sized solid waste items from homes, businesses, and institutions with short useful lives and produced in large numbers.
- Bulky Waste: Consists of larger items of solid waste, such as mattresses and appliances, as well as smaller
Evolution of Planetary Models: From Ptolemy to Newton
Evolution of Planetary Models
Models Planted.
1. Ptolemy (2nd Century)
- Geocentric Model: The Earth is at the center of the universe.
- All stars and planets revolve around the Earth in circular orbits.
- To explain the movement of planets against the background of fixed stars (retrograde motion), Ptolemy introduced epicycles and deferents.
- The model is mathematically complex but fits observations well and can be applied in practice (navigation, eclipse prediction, etc.).
2. Copernicus (16th Century)
- Heliocentric
Spain’s Diverse Climates: A Regional Breakdown
Mountain Weather: Includes territories located more than 1000 meters high. This climate has specific characteristics because as altitude increases, precipitation increases and temperatures decrease. In this climate, rainfall often exceeds 1000 mm per year. Temperatures are characterized by an annual low, cool summers, and cold winters.
Oceanic Climate
Oceanic Climate: Is found in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Spain is unique in that it is the only area with this climate that is not a typical
Read MoreWastewater Treatment: Primary and Secondary Processes
Primary Wastewater Treatment
Primary separation of finer suspended solids not separated in pretreatment.
1. pH Control
A preliminary step before precipitation, coagulation-flocculation, biological processes, or the final stage before discharge. The basic principle is: acid + base = salt + water. Different neutralization processes are used for wastewater:
- a) Acidic wastewater: Strong bases (CaO, MgO, NaOH) are added in a stirred tank.
- b) Basic wastewater: Mineral acids are added in a stirred tank.
- c)