Celestial Hierarchy: From Atoms to Galaxy Clusters
Due to the expansion of the universe, its temperature was 3000 K (Weinberg, 1977).
Evolution of Stellar Clusters and Galaxies
Matter in the universe is organized in a hierarchy of celestial bodies, listed below in descending order of size:
- Clusters of galaxies
- Galaxies
- Stars, pulsars, and black holes
- Planets and satellites
- Comets
- Asteroids
- Meteoroids
- Dust
- Molecules
- H and He atoms
On the subatomic scale, the space between stars and galaxies is filled with cosmic rays (nuclear particles) and photons (light).
Stars
Read MoreClimate Types, Ecosystems, and Adaptations
Climate Types and Characteristics
I Equatorial climate: constant daily oscillation. II Tropical with summer rains. III Subtropical arid, hot deserts. IV Mediterranean with summer drought. Hyperoceanic. V Temperate laurel forests. VI Typical temperate deciduous forests. VII Warm, dry, cold steppes and deserts. VIII Boreal taiga forests. IX Arctic tundra.
Ecological Concepts
Minimum Activity (Min Act): Activity is limited by an organism due to a resource available in low quantities relative to the
Read MoreEarthquakes and Volcanoes: Manifestations and Distribution
Manifestations of Earthquakes
Earthquakes occur when energy accumulated in the interior of the Earth is suddenly released.
- Focus or hypocenter: The point within the Earth where the earthquake originates.
- Epicenter: The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the hypocenter.
- Faults: Fractures in the Earth’s crust where two blocks of rock move relative to each other.
- Seismic waves: Generated by earthquakes and captured by seismographs.
- Seismographs: Devices that record seismic activity in a specific
Electrical Energy Generation: Sources and Impacts
Three Ways to Generate Electrical Energy
- Thermal Power: Burning fuels (coal, gas, oil) or using nuclear reactions to produce steam that drives turbines.
- Renewable Energy: Using natural sources like the sun (solar panels), wind (wind turbines), or water (hydroelectric dams) to generate electricity.
- Geothermal Energy: Using heat from inside the Earth to produce steam and turn turbines.
Thermal Power
Renewable Energy
Geothermal Energy
Direct Current (DC) vs. Alternating Current (AC)
- Flow: DC flows in one direction,
Energy Sources, Industrialization, and Economic Systems
Energy Sources and Consumption
Currently, alternative energy sources account for only 14% of global energy consumption. The use of alternative energy has been hindered by technological and environmental difficulties.
Renewable Energy
Also called alternative or soft energy, this term encompasses a variety of energy sources that theoretically will not be exhausted over time. These sources would be an alternative to traditional sources and produce minimal environmental impact, although not all are strictly
Read MoreSoil Formation, Composition, and Degradation
What is Soil?
In environmental science, soil is the interface between the geosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Soil science studies soil, particularly focusing on soil as a resource for conservation and rational exploitation.
Soil Formation
Soil formation, or pedogenesis, occurs in three stages (not specified as ‘Stage C, STAGE AND STAGE AC ABC’ in the original text, which seems incorrect. Stages are typically described differently, e.g., initial, juvenile, mature, etc., but without further context,
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