Understanding Soil Formation, Classification, and Erosion Impacts
Factors Leading to Soil Formation
- Weather: Water balance, increased temperature.
- Topography: Favors erosion, hindering soil formation.
- Nature of the Bedrock: Soil components depend on the minerals present.
- Biological Activity: Decaying matter contributes to organic matter formation.
- Time: Soil regeneration is slow, making it a non-renewable resource.
Soil Classification
Zonal Soils
Zonal soils, found in areas like polar regions and deserts, lack distinct horizons.
Azonal Soil Types
- Soils of Humid and Cold
Understanding Materials: Properties, Metals, and Alloys
Materials and Classification
A material is any substance used for the construction of an object. Raw materials are resources obtained from nature and used in a post-production process. A raw material may not always be a material in the direct sense, for example, oil.
Evolution of Materials
Each new stage of technological development has led to the incorporation of new materials, some of which become so important that they designate an era, such as the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Currently,
Read MoreProduct Lifecycle: From Extraction to Recycling
The Product Lifecycle
The product lifecycle encompasses all activities necessary to obtain a product, from raw material extraction to end-of-life management:
- Extraction of raw materials
- Transformation into manufactured objects
- Product manufacturing
- Product utilization
- Recycling
Extraction
We have a variety of raw materials with potential for technical application.
Energetic and Metallic Minerals
Coal and minerals like iron and aluminum are obtained through mining techniques in open-pit or underground mines.
Read MoreEarth’s Structure, Rocks, Minerals, and Industrial Uses
Earth’s Structure
At the center is the hot core, surrounded by the mantle (molten rock). The outer part of the mantle is the source of magma that reaches the surface. The crust is the most important layer for people and is made up of seven large tectonic plates.
Types of Rock (Formation)
- Igneous rocks: ‘Formed by fire’ and associated with volcanic activity. Granite and basalt are the most common types.
- Granite: Formed from magma forced into rocks during the formation of fold mountains.
- Basalt: Formed
Understanding Watersheds: Key Elements and River Basin Types
Understanding Watersheds
A watershed encompasses several key elements:
Watershed Divide
The watershed divide is a line that delineates the watershed, marking the boundary between it and adjacent watersheds. Precipitation on either side of the divide flows into different rivers. It’s also known as the divortium aquarum.
The Main River
The main river is typically defined as the watercourse with the greatest volume of water (average or maximum), the longest length, or the largest drainage area. Defining
Read MoreUnderstanding Tectonic Stress, Deformation, and Geological Structures
Tectonic Stress and Strain
Tectonic Stress
Rock may be subjected to three types of stress:
- Compression: These forces cause shortening and thickening of the rocks. These pressures originate from convergent plate margins and transform faults.
- Tension: These forces produce stretching and thinning of the rocks. They can also arise when rocks are released from compressive stress.
- Shear: These are pressures acting on a surface in opposite directions. Shear stress is developed at faults and along plate boundaries.