Major Relief Units of the Iberian Peninsula
Submeseta North
- Occupied by the Duero basin
- High altitude (700 m)
- Flat relief
- Hercynian Morphostructure:
- Paleozoic rocks in the west
- Tertiary calcareous sediments in the east
- Clays eroded from surrounding mountains
- Landforms: moors, hills, plains, peneplain
Central System
- Great line of mountains in NE-SW direction
- Length: 400 km
- Raised area within the Paleozoic base
- Uplifted blocks (saws) and hollow blocks (valles)
- Hard materials
- Soft peaks
- Glacial modeling in highest mountains
Submeseta South
- Altitude: 600-700 m
- Plain
Climate Change: Causes, Impacts, and Solutions
Climate Change Is Already Here
United Nations Response to Global Change
The United Nations, established in 1988, created the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC predicts an average global temperature increase between 1.5°C and 5.8°C for the current century.
Evidence of Climate Change:
- Retreating glaciers and ice sheets (the saltwater ice layer covering polar oceans). Summer ice cover in the Arctic Ocean has decreased by 14%, and its thickness has reduced by 40%.
- Rising sea levels
Geological Risks: Understanding and Mitigating Natural Hazards
Erosion
Erosion is the removal of materials from an area due to geological processes. It can lead to the loss of soil, sediments, and other resources.
Factors that Increase Erosion
- Rugged slopes
- Lack of vegetation
- Unstable ground materials
- Climate
Preventive Measures
- Determining the most appropriate land use
- Reforestation or terracing
- Maintaining vegetation on slopes
Gravitational Processes
Gravitational processes involve the movement of materials down a slope. They can pose a danger to people and infrastructure.
Read MoreUnderstanding Natural Hazards: Earthquakes, Tsunamis, and Volcanic Eruptions
Natural Hazards: Earthquakes, Tsunamis, and Volcanic Eruptions
Earthquakes
Earthquakes are ground vibrations caused by the sudden release of stored energy in the rocks that are under strain. This energy release can cause large rock masses to move, creating fractures called faults.
How an Earthquake Originates
The point where an earthquake originates is called the seismic focus or hypocenter. Seismic vibrations or seismic waves are transmitted in all directions from the focus, similar to the ripples
Read MoreEnvironmental Management: Sustainable Development and Environmental Impacts
Environmental Management
Environmental management refers to the set of legislative, economic, political, and technical measures designed to ensure responsible use of natural resources and minimize the potential impacts of human activities on the environment, with the aim of achieving sustainable development.
Models of Development
2.1 Uncontrolled Development
Uncontrolled development prioritizes economic growth above all other ecological considerations. Its ultimate goal is profit, and its growth is
Read MoreSoil Compaction and Improvement Techniques: A Comprehensive Guide
Compaction
Compaction is a mechanical process that reduces voids within the soil mass, forcing solid particles into closer contact. It increases soil resistance and decreases compressibility. The required maximum density should be 95% of modified proctor density, and layers typically do not exceed 30 cm.
Factors Determining Compaction Degree
- Effect of Water: Increased moisture content and compaction energy result in higher density, as water acts as a lubricant.
- Compaction Energy: Increasing compaction