19th Century Spain: Social and Economic Transformations
Economic and Technological Changes
Agriculture and Land Ownership
Latifundio: Large properties, predominantly in Castilla La Mancha, Extremadura, and Andalusia, that failed to improve productivity.
Legal and Financial Developments
Mon-Santillan Law (1845): Law enacted by moderate governments facing fiscal reform. It established the basis for general contributions on goods, industrial products, and consumption, but not on labor.
Law on Banks and Credit Societies (1856): Considered the starting point of
Read MoreGeomorphology of Catalonia: Pyrenees, Coastal Ranges, and Central Depression
The Geomorphology of Catalonia
The Catalan relief emphasizes four main units: the Pyrenees (Pyrenean foothills and axial), the Coastal Cordillera, the Central Depression, and the coastal plains. Catalonia has a mountainous setting with two large plains, l’Empordà and d’Urgell, and a rugged coastline, the waters of which flow into the Ebro Depression.
The Role of the Pyrenees
Of the 435 km of the Pyrenees, 250 km are in Catalan territory. From the Cinca River to Cape Creus, the Pyrenees occupy one-
Read MoreGlossary of Architectural Terms
A
Alcazaba
A fortified walled enclosure within a settlement, designed for military resistance. It’s characterized by not being exclusively a military building, but also having administrative and civil functions.
Arteson
A ceiling discovered in Madrid, shaped like an inverted trough, square or polygonal, and richly decorated.
Archivolt
Molding or band around an arch. Often used in the plural to refer to all the bands of arches arranged in an abocinado opening.
Arco Lobe
Arch formed by juxtaposed lobes with
Read MoreEsplanade, Sub-base, and Pavement Construction Guidelines
Esplanade Construction
Definition
The esplanade is the finished surface of an embankment or excavation. It supports the sub-base, base, and pavement layers.
Geotechnical Characteristics (50cm Depth)
- Particle size analysis
- Atterberg limits
- CBR
- Water table status
Level Terraces
Packed in 20-25cm layers:
- 90% AM (coherent soil)
- 95% PM (non-coherent soil)
In the last 50cm of the bank:
- 95% AM
- 100% PM humidity
Moisture Content for PM Esplanade
Start work when soil humidity (h) in the top 50cm is:
h < H + 2
Where H =
Read MoreStructure of the Universe and Plate Tectonics
Structure of the Universe
Galaxies
Galaxies are grouped in clusters called superclusters, which are arranged in filaments. They are accumulations of cosmic dust, nebulae, and stars. The space between galaxies is called the interstellar medium.
The Milky Way
The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy with nebulae, dust, and 10 to 30 million stars. Our sun is located in one of its arms.
Parts of the Milky Way:
- Medulla or Nucleus: A cluster of old stars, possibly with a black hole in the center.
- Disk: Contains cosmic
The Causes and Consequences of World War II
The Causes of World War II
Several factors contributed to the outbreak of World War II:
- The 1929 economic crisis: The global economic downturn created instability and resentment.
- Aggressive policies of totalitarian states: Germany (Hitler), Italy (Mussolini), and Japan pursued expansionist policies.
- Consequences of the Treaty of Versailles: The treaty imposed harsh penalties on Germany, fostering a desire for revenge.
- Appeasement by Western democracies: Weakened by economic problems, Britain and France