Natural Hazards: Earthquakes and Volcanoes
The Genetic Code
The genetic code defines the relationship between nucleotides in a polynucleotide and amino acids.
This code is universal, meaning all living organisms, from bacteria to humans, share it. This universality provides further evidence of the unity of life and our shared evolutionary history.
Four distinct types of nucleotides, represented by their bases, exist in nucleic acids. Proteins, on the other hand, are composed of 20 different amino acids.
Seismic Risk
Areas with high tectonic
Read MoreEnergy Types and Sources: Renewable and Non-Renewable
Energy
Energy is a physical quantity associated with the ability to produce changes in bodies. It is measurable and expressed in Joules. (1 cal = 4.19 J) (1 kWh = 3,600,000 J)
Types of Energy
Mechanical Energy
The sum of kinetic and potential energy.
Kinetic Energy
Energy possessed by a moving body.
Potential Energy
Energy possessed by a body due to its position (e.g., height).
Electrical Energy
Generated by the movement of electrically charged particles, producing electrical current.
Internal Energy
Energy
Read MoreRadioactive Decay, Phytoremediation, and Bioremediation of Metals
Radioactive Clocks
Radioactive elements are unstable and disintegrate at a precise rhythm. To measure the speed of this decay, we consider the half-life, the time it takes for a quantity of the material to reduce by half.
Isotopes:
- Chlorine-36. Half-life: 300,000 years.
- Hydrogen-3 (Tritium). Half-life: less than 1 second.
- Technetium-99. Half-life: 6 hours.
- Carbon-14. Half-life: 5,730 years.
Technetium-99 and Hydrogen-3 isotopes cannot be used to determine the age of fossils due to their short half-lives.
Read MoreSpain’s Water Resources, Natural Risks, and Environmental Challenges
1.3 Water Resources and Use
1.3.1 Water Consumption
- Consumers of water: Irrigation (80%), economic sectors, household use. Municipal use has increased to 160 liters/inhabitant/day.
- Non-consumptive uses: Fishing, aquaculture, navigation.
1.3.2 Water Balance
Water resources primarily come from rainfall and aquifers. Only 32% is available, and less than half of that is utilized.
Water Deficit Problems:
- Uneven resource distribution: Surplus in northern basins (North pit, Douro River) and scarcity in Mediterranean
Coastal Zones: Formation, Dynamics, and Communities
The Coastline
The coastline is the land between the upper and lower limits of the coast and adjacent areas directly influenced by the sea. It’s the contact zone between land and sea.
The Coast as an Interface
In the littoral zone, four Earth subsystems interact:
Atmosphere
- High moisture content, water particles, and salts.
- Winds influence currents, waves, intertidal life, and geology.
Hydrosphere
- Mainly marine waters.
- Models geology and provides habitat for coastal life.
Geosphere
- Determined by materials,
Chilean Hazardous Materials Classification
Different substances or hazardous materials are officially classified in the Chilean standard 2.120.Of89, which establishes the following classes:
Class 1: Explosive Substances
Includes:
a) Explosive substances, except those too dangerous to be transported and those whose primary risk is another class. Substances not themselves explosive but which can form explosive gas, vapor, or dust are not included.
b) Explosive articles, except devices containing explosive substances in such quantity or of its