Thermodynamics and Chemical Equilibrium: Key Concepts
Gas Laws and Properties
- For a gas with no internal order: ls-in líki2 k in ls as there is no ordn gass intrno.
- Phase change from liquid to gas involves an increase in entropy.
- Dalton’s Law: pA = p0 xA
- Avogadro’s Law: V1N2 = V2N1
Internal Energy and Enthalpy
- At constant pressure, the change in internal energy equals the heat exchanged.
- At constant pressure, the enthalpy change equals the heat exchanged plus pΔV.
- Heat involved in a constant volume process is calculated as follows.
- In general, the heat involved
Human Impact on Earth’s Resources: Water and Soil Limits
Earth’s Carrying Capacity and Resource Consumption
Carrying Capacity: This refers to the maximum number of individuals (population) that the planet can sustainably support.
Population and Resources
The concept of carrying capacity limits human population, estimated to be around billions of inhabitants, potentially coinciding with projections for the 21st century. We are approaching the limit the planet can sustain. The planet’s carrying capacity is affected by resource consumption, which is increasing
Read MoreUnderstanding Earthquakes: Origins, Measurement, and Risk
Understanding Earthquakes
Earthquake Origins
As an earthquake originates:
- Stress builds up.
- Tension increases, and materials deform.
- Materials fracture, releasing energy that vibrates the ground.
Measuring Earthquakes
Seismometers detect even very weak earthquakes that go unnoticed by people, drawing graphic seismograms. The magnitude of an earthquake is the amount of energy released, measured on the Richter scale, which is open-ended and has no limit.
Intensity vs. Magnitude
Intensity and magnitude are
Read MoreGeological Processes and Landforms: Definitions & Examples
Geological Processes and Landforms
Seismogram: A chart created by a seismograph (a device that detects earthquakes and deformations). These graphs allow us to locate the epicenter of the earthquake, its magnitude, and the depth of focus.
Subsidence: The slow and gradual sinking of the ground, often due to soil settlement after the extraction of fluids (water and oil), or by seismic liquefaction phenomena.
Collapses: Sharp vertical drops, such as the collapse of a cave resulting from the dissolution
Read MoreUnderstanding Earth’s Hydrosphere: Oceans, Rivers, and Glaciers
The Hydrosphere: Earth’s Waters
The hydrosphere encompasses all of Earth’s water.
Approximately 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by seawater, primarily in oceans and seas.
The remaining water is found in inland rivers, lakes, groundwater, and glaciers.
Marine Waters
Marine waters differ from inland waters due to their salinity. The average salinity of the oceans is 35%. Oceans are large bodies of saltwater.
Major Oceans
- Pacific Ocean: The oldest and largest ocean, characterized by its great depth
Soil Composition, Types, and Land Pollution Issues
Understanding Soil Composition and Structure
Soil is the loose material on the Earth’s surface situated above solid rock.
Soil Layers (Horizons)
Soil is typically composed of three main layers or horizons:
- Topsoil (A horizon): The uppermost layer, which gains organic material from the decomposition of plants and animals.
- Subsoil (B horizon): Located beneath the topsoil, this layer accumulates materials leached from the horizons above.
- Weathered Bedrock (C horizon): This layer contains loose pieces of