Understanding Water Flow, Vegetation, and Soil Dynamics
Runoff
Runoff is the water sheet flowing over the surface (the height in millimeters of rainwater runoff and extended). It forms when rainfall exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. It is a major cause of erosion worldwide.
River Flow
- Full flow: The amount of water passing a given point per second by a river. Measured in hm3.
- Average flow: Average flow of a series of at least 30 years.
- Fluvial regime: The seasonal variation of river flow.
- Relative flow: The amount of water the course of a river
Secondary Sector Activities: Energy and Industrial Production
Industry: The Main Component of Secondary Sector Activities
Industry encompasses the processing of manufactured materials. Energy sources are the natural resources that provide the strength to transform raw materials, move machinery, and facilitate people and merchandise.
Nonrenewable Energy
Coal: Its origin is in the accumulation of vegetable debris. These remains, buried in soil or water at shallow depths, suffered decomposition and a solidification process. Coal is used as a fuel to produce electricity
Solar Radiation, Climate Change, and Soil Formation
The Sun: Earth’s Closest Star
The sun, the closest star to Earth, is a huge sphere of gases, primarily hydrogen and helium. Its innermost zone is the outer core and the photosphere. Hydrogen atoms join to form helium atoms in a process called fusion, which releases energy. The energy from the sun is emitted in all directions into space as solar radiation. The closer a planet is to the sun, the more energy per square meter it receives.
The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the layer of gases enveloping the
Read MoreEcosystems, Biodiversity, and Sustainable Practices
Natural Resources and Sustainable Development
Appeal: “Resources” is what humans get from nature to meet their needs. As available, we can distinguish between:
- Renewable resources: Limited quantities that may end.
- Non-depleting renewable resources: For example, the sun. These resources regenerate.
- Potentially renewable resources: Found in nature, but if overused, they can become exhausted. For example, fishing.
What is Sustainable Development?
Sustainable development meets present needs without compromising
Read MoreUnderstanding Vegetation, Soil Types, and Climate Patterns
Vegetation
In botany, vegetation refers to a classification of plant species characterized by a particular physiognomy that, in turn, determines a characteristic landscape. The basic types are forest, scrub, meadow, and steppe. There are three types of forest: deciduous, sclerophyllous, and Canary laurel. The forest represents the climax vegetation as the final stage in the evolution of plant formations. Secondary vegetation consists of species developed after human intervention, either through controlled
Read MoreEarth’s Interior: Structure, Dynamics, and Geological Processes
Methods of Studying the Earth’s Interior
Direct observation of the Earth’s materials provides very limited information. The rocks extracted are comparable to those that emerge on the surface of the Earth.
- Study of mines: 2,000 m deep.
- Polls: 7,000 m deep.
Indirect observations provide more data on the Earth’s interior.
- Erosion of mountains brings out rocks that originated in depth.
- Lavas emitted by volcanoes are made of materials originating at depths of up to 100 km.
- Meteorites fallen on Earth are considered