City Government, Craftsmen, and Trade in Medieval Europe
City Government
*Cities depended on the lay or ecclesiastical lords of the areas where they were located. The abuses of these lords led the bourgeois gentlemen to claim the right to govern themselves. They created associations, called communes, which fought to obtain a communal charter or jurisdiction from the lords or the king. Having gained their freedom, the government of the city rested on a communal council elected by the citizens. The council was responsible for collecting taxes and supplying
Read MoreThe Reconquista: The Christian Reconquest of Spain
The Presence and Power of the Christian Kingdoms in Spain
The presence and power of the Christian kingdoms in Spain from the eighth century onwards stemmed from developments that lasted more than seven centuries. Spain was occupied by the Muslims who came through the Strait of Gibraltar and subsequently took over the Iberian Peninsula. The Visigoths, though respected by the Muslims, had diminished power since the fall of the Roman Empire.
The Muslims gradually took control of the peninsula, establishing
Read MoreCocoa Crop Cultivation: A Comprehensive Guide
COCOA CROP (Teobroma cacao)
Taxonomy
Family: Malvaceae
Species: Theobroma cacao L.
Origin and Significance
Cocoa originated in the wet tropics of America, specifically northwestern South America and the Amazon. The Mayans in Mexico domesticated and cultivated cocoa, developing a sophisticated culture around its use as a beverage. In contrast, cocoa remained wild in South America. The Spanish adopted the original Nahuatl language names for cocoa, “cocoa” and “chocolate,” from Mexico.
Climate and Soil Requirements
Temperature
Cocoa
Read MoreMesopotamia: The Cradle of Civilization
Mesopotamia, located in present-day Iraq and parts of Syria and Turkey, is characterized by its fertile land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It’s a region of flat plains, periodic flooding, and limited natural barriers, making it vulnerable to invasions. The rivers provided water for irrigation, facilitating agriculture, and enabling the growth of early civilizations such as Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria.
Read MoreMedieval Spain: Kingdoms, Conquests, and Culture
The Crown of Castile
13th Century Reconquest
The reconquest of Castile experienced a breakthrough in the thirteenth century. St. Ferdinand finally joined Castile and Leon in 1230, and conquered Cordoba, Jaen, and Seville. Alfonso X the Wise won Murcia. The repopulation was done by the system of allotments.
Government and Economy
The kingdom’s government was organized around the king, the royal council, and Cortes. The economic base was farming and the export trade in wool. The winners were associated
Read MoreDemographic Trends in Spain: Natural Growth and Migration
Demographic Trends in Spain
1. Natural Growth in Absolute Numbers
Natural Growth = Births – Deaths
Rate of natural increase = birth rate% -% mortality rate
1. The Demographic Regimes
The evolution of the natural movement of the Spanish population is distinguished by various stages or demographic regimes. These stages are the old demographic regime, the demographic transition, and the modern demographic regime. The transition between each stage has been later than in other European countries.