Bourbon Reforms: Centralization, Society, and Economy in 18th Century Spain
II.2 – Bourbon State Political Organization
The arrival of the Bourbons to the Spanish throne initiated a process of centralization and political unification, beginning with the Decrees of Nueva Planta.
The Nueva Planta decrees abolished the privileges of the kingdoms of the Crown of Aragon (Valencia, 1707; Aragon, 1711; Mallorca, 1715; Catalonia, 1716). The elimination of these charters was possible after Philip V’s victory over those territories, which he considered rebellious. At this time, all
Read MoreGlobal Insights: India’s Revival, Sahara Greening, and More
India’s Economic Revival
The idea that India is a poor country is a relatively recent one. Historically, South Asia was always famous as the richest region of the globe. Ever since the great Greek conqueror Alexander penetrated the Hindu Kush in 329 B.C., Europeans fantasized about the wealth of these lands where precious jewels were said to lie scattered on the ground like dust. During the 17th century, the Indian Mughal emperors were rivalled only by their Ming counterparts in China. For their
Read MoreEconomic and Social Transformation: Industrial Revolution and Class Society
The Economic and Social Transformation
Between 1750 and 1850, two very different revolutions took place simultaneously in Europe: the French Revolution, which led to political transformation, and the Industrial Revolution, which brought about dramatic economic and technological changes. These revolutions had an enormous impact on society in this period, as well as in the decades which followed. In Great Britain, economic and technological advances resulted in the development of a more efficient system
Read MoreEnglish Language History: From Old English to Global Spread
History of the English Language
Old English (5th-11th Century)
Following the Roman legions leaving Britannia, the invasion of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes resulted in a language mixture. Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon, emerged. The first North Sea crossing led to fragmented English with variations. Borrowings from Celtic languages, influences of Latin, and Viking invasions (8th-11th centuries) contributed to its development. A written standard based on West Saxon emerged.
Middle English (1100-
Read MoreAgricultural and Livestock Production: Intensive and Extensive Practices
Agricultural Practices
Agriculture includes both intensive and extensive irrigation. Intensive irrigation, whether open-air or in greenhouses, allows for the cultivation of fruits and vegetables, while extensive irrigation is used for other crops. The distribution of irrigation varies, with lower levels in the north and higher levels in Mediterranean climates. Water sources are often located near rivers. Intensive irrigation benefits from favorable temperatures, suitable soils, and human intervention.
Read MoreEarly Modern Age: Discoveries, Monarchies, and Transformations
The Early Modern Age
Started in 1492 and ended in 1789 with the outbreak of the French Revolution.
Political, economic, and social changes brought about a new system called Ancient Régime.
- Europeans’ discovery and conquest of new lands increased economic, social, and cultural exchange.
- European monarchs became more powerful, exerting their authority over feudal lords and all three estates of the realm.
- New forms of skilled craftsmanship increased trade and created a new open economy. The bourgeoisie