Macroeconomic Indicators: GDP, Unemployment, and Inflation
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Definition: The market value of all final goods and services produced within a country during a specific period. It does not account for population size.
Key Uses of GDP
- Measuring living standards
- Tracking economic growth
- Identifying recessions and expansions
Core Concepts
- Per Capita GDP: GDP รท Population (indicates average living standards).
- Economic Growth: The percentage change in real per capita GDP.
- Business Cycle: Short-run economic fluctuations.
- Expansion: Trough to peak.
Essential Microeconomics Principles and Market Models
Chapter 1: Ten Principles of Economics
How People Make Decisions
1. People Face Trade-offs
Scarcity forces choices. Examples include:
- Efficiency vs. equality
- Work vs. leisure
- Clean environment vs. economic output
2. The Cost of Something Is What You Give Up to Get It
Opportunity cost is the next-best alternative. Examples include:
- College = tuition + books + forgone wages
- Watching a movie = ticket price + lost study time
3. Rational People Think at the Margin
Rational agents compare:
- Marginal Benefit (MB)
- Marginal
Marginal Productivity and Production Cost Principles
Marginal Productivity & Production Costs
Law of Diminishing Marginal Productivity
Law of Diminishing Marginal Productivity: Extra output per worker eventually decreases as more workers are added to fixed capital.
Short Run and Long Run
Short Run: Some inputs (like labor) can be changed, but others (like capital or factory size) are fixed.
Long Run: All inputs can be changed; the firm can adjust labor, capital, etc., to optimize production.
Production Function and Products
Production Function: Maximum
Consumer Behavior, Production & Market Structures Economics
Consumer Behavior: Utility & Indifference Curves
This unit explores how consumers make choices to maximize their satisfaction.
Key Concepts
Utility: The want-satisfying power of a commodity.
Cardinal Utility: Assumes utility can be measured numerically (e.g., in “utils”). This is the basis for the Marginal Utility Analysis.
Ordinal Utility: Assumes utility can only be ranked or compared (e.g., first, second, third preference). This is the basis for the Indifference Curve Analysis.
Law of Diminishing
Microeconomics: Nature, Elasticity, Demand, Supply & Equilibrium
1. Nature and Scope of Microeconomics (16 Marks)
Microeconomics is an important branch of economics that deals with the study of individual economic units such as consumers, firms, industries and markets. It focuses on how individuals and firms make decisions regarding the allocation of scarce resources and how these decisions affect prices, output and the distribution of income. Microeconomics is also known as price theory because it explains the determination of prices of goods and services in
Read MoreMicroeconomics: Taxes, Subsidies, and Utility Maximization
1. Taxes, Subsidies, and Deadweight Loss (DWL)
This topic analyzes how government intervention (taxes or subsidies) affects market equilibrium, consumer surplus (CS), producer surplus (PS), and total efficiency (DWL).
Key Formulas & Concepts
Tax Wedge:
A tax ($\tau$) drives a wedge between the price buyers pay ($P_d$) and the price sellers receive ($P_s$).$P_d = P_s + \tau$
The new equilibrium quantity ($Q_t$) is found where $Q_d(P_d) = Q_s(P_s)$.
Subsidy Wedge:
A subsidy ($s$) also creates a wedge,