Spain’s Moderate Decade: Elizabeth II’s Reign (1844-1854)
The Moderate Decade: Elizabeth II’s Reign (1844-1854)
Elizabeth II ascended to the throne prematurely in 1843, at thirteen years old, gaining popularity after the discrediting of the head of state following the regencies of María Cristina. This period opened a moderate regime, signifying the consolidation of power by the great landowning bourgeoisie. It was characterized by a conservative liberalism, maintaining the economic reforms of 1833-1843 but greatly restricting social and political freedoms
Read MoreFrench President Election and Powers
French President: Election & Role
The President of the Republic is elected for five years in a single constituency comprising the whole nation and may be reelected indefinitely. (Under the Third Republic, the presidential term lasted seven years, but since the introduction of the Fifth Republic, it was reduced to five years, a change approved in 2000, albeit with an abstention rate of 70%). Before 1962, the election was indirect.
Presidential Election Process
The selection is done by majority vote
Read MoreGerman Associations, Unions, and Media Landscape
German Associations and Societies
Constitutional Basis: Article 9
Bonn Basic Law Article 9 constitutionalizes these groupings: “All Germans have the right to form associations and societies (…). The right to form associations to safeguard and improve economic and working conditions is guaranteed to every person and every profession. Agreements aiming to restrict or prevent this right shall be void; measures taken to this end are illegal.”
Key Business Associations
Business associations are concentrated
Read MorePolitical Power, State Structures, Regimes, and Elections
Elements of Political Power
Political power is composed of three elements: strength, influence, and authority.
Strength (Coercion)
We speak about strength or coercion when there is a capacity to deny or limit access to specific goods or opportunities to others. This is what happens when political institutions arrest, evict, imprison, or sanction somebody, or threaten to do so.
Influence
Influence refers to those cases in which political power resides in its capacity to convince people about the patterns
Read MoreUnderstanding Swiss Political Parties and Direct Democracy
They are subject to federal legislative referendum and general federal resolutions passed by the Assembly. They are also subject to referendum on some international treaties. In any case, it seems the general scope of the provisions is the decisive factor for submission to a referendum. Between 1850 and 1880, some cantons in their constitutions introduced the so-called right of cancellation, whereby a certain number of citizens are entitled to request the resignation of members of the Cantonal Parliament
Read MoreSpain’s Administrative Divisions: Municipalities & Regions
Spain’s Territorial Organization
Constitutional Framework
According to the Spanish Constitution, the national territory is organized into municipalities, provinces, and Autonomous Communities. Municipalities and provinces are long-standing administrative units.
Municipal Administration
Municipalities represent the most basic administrative and territorial units of the State. A municipality is governed by its local administration (City Council), positioned to address local issues effectively and promptly.
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