Understanding Relational Database Concepts and Operations
1. Relational Model Basics
Key Concepts:
- A relation is a set of tuples (no duplicates, no ordering).
- Each tuple conforms to the relation’s schema.
- Primary keys uniquely identify tuples.
- Foreign keys maintain referential integrity.
Practice Question: Consider a library database with Books(ISBN, title, author, year). Which statement is true?
- a) Two books can have the same ISBN if they’re different editions.
- b) The order of book records affects query results.
- c) Each book record must conform to the (ISBN, title,
Understanding Binary Search, Graphs, and Priority Queues
Q) How is binary search different from linear search?
| Linear Search | Binary Search |
|---|---|
| 1. Checks each element one by one from start to end. | 1. Repeatedly divides the sorted list into halves to find the element. |
| 2. Works on unsorted or sorted lists. | 2. Works only on sorted lists. |
| 3. Time complexity is O(n). | 3. Time complexity is O(log n) (much faster). |
| 4. Simple and easy to implement. | 4. Slightly more complex due to mid calculations. |
| 5. Inefficient for large datasets. | 5. Highly efficient for large datasets. |
| 6. No |
Fundamental Data Structures and Algorithms Concepts
A stack is a linear data structure that follows the Last In First Out (LIFO) principle. This means that the last element added to the stack is the first one to be removed. A stack can be visualized like a stack of plates; you can only add or remove the top plate.
Key operations of a stack include:
1. Push: Adding an element to the top of the stack.
2. Pop: Removing the element from the top of the stack.
3. Peek (or Top): Viewing the element at the top of the stack without removing it.
4. IsEmpty: Checking
Operating System Fundamentals and Linux Essentials
Operating System Concepts: Key Differences
This section outlines the differences between core operating system concepts:
- Preemptive and Non-Preemptive Scheduling
- Program and Process
- Hard Real-Time Systems and Soft Real-Time Systems
- Time Sharing and Multiprogramming
Preemptive vs. Non-Preemptive Scheduling
| Point | Preemptive Scheduling | Non-Preemptive Scheduling |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | CPU can be taken away from a running process before completion. | CPU cannot be taken away; the process runs until it finishes or waits. |
| 2 | Better response |
Essential Data Structures: Bags, Stacks, Queues, and Big O
Fundamentals of Data Structures and OOP
Data Structures (DS): Methods for storing and managing data efficiently so it can be reused.
Examples of Data Structures:
- Lists
- Queues
- Trees
- Bags
- Dictionaries
- Graphs
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Principles
- Encapsulation
- Abstraction
- Inheritance
- Polymorphism
Bags: Unordered Collections
A Bag is a finite collection of objects where the order of elements does not matter. Duplicates are allowed.
Examples: Shopping bags, piggy banks.
Core Bag Operations:
addremovecontainscleargetFrequencyOfisEmptytoArray
Core Algorithms in Computer Graphics: Clipping, Drawing & Displays
Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm
What is the Cohen-Sutherland Algorithm?
The Cohen–Sutherland algorithm is a line clipping method used to clip a line segment against a rectangular clipping window. It divides the area around the window into regions and assigns a 4-bit region code (Outcode) to each endpoint of the line.
Algorithm Steps
Assign 4-bit codes to each endpoint. Each bit represents a position relative to the window:
- Bit 1: Top
- Bit 2: Bottom
- Bit 3: Right
- Bit 4: Left
For example:
0000→