Industrial Applications of Nitric Acid
From the Standpoint of Industrial Life
Nitric acid (HNO3) is one of the most important acids in industrial processes. Here’s how HNO3 is used in various industries:
- Fertilizer Industry: Used in the production of fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate and potassium nitrate.
- Explosives: A key component in the manufacturing of explosives like nitroglycerin and TNT (Trinitrotoluene).
- Metallurgy and Refining: Utilized due to its reactivity with most metals.
- Chemical Synthesis: Employed in various chemical
Organic Chemistry: Exploring Hydrocarbons, Alcohols, and More
Hydrocarbons
Alkanes
Alkanes, also called paraffins, are saturated hydrocarbons composed of carbon and hydrogen. They are saturated because they contain only single bonds. Saturated hydrocarbons may be linear or branched.
Alkenes and Alkynes
Alkenes and alkynes are hydrocarbons containing double (alkenes) or triple bonds (alkynes). Ethylene (ethene) is used as feedstock for polyethylene and in fruit ripening. Beta-carotene gives color to various plants and is a source of vitamin A. Acetylene (ethyne)
Read MoreAcids, Bases, Salts and Oxides in Chemistry
Acids
According to Arrhenius (1887), an acid is any substance that, in aqueous solution, releases solely H+ ions. An example is hydrochloric acid (HCl):
H+ + Cl–Some years later, in 1923, Brønsted and Lowry proposed the idea that an acid is a substance that can transfer protons (H+).
This latter definition generalized Arrhenius’ theory of acids. The Brønsted-Lowry theory also serves for non-aqueous solutions. The two theories are very similar in the definition of acid, but the Brønsted-Lowry
Read MoreMetal Surface Treatments and Corrosion Protection
Metal Surface Treatments
Nitriding
This surface hardening treatment increases corrosion resistance using ammonia gas in a high-temperature oven. Rapid cooling and subsequent annealing are performed.
Sulfinization
This treatment increases sulfur and nitrogen percentages in the steel’s surface layer.
Oxidation
Metals and alloys release electrons, increasing their oxidation state. A redox reaction occurs with another substance. All metals oxidize in dry, warm conditions, forming a compact, homogeneous,
Read MoreThermodynamics & Thermochemistry: A Comprehensive Guide
Thermodynamics and Thermochemistry
Introduction
Thermodynamics is the study of energy transformations, particularly those involving heat and work. Thermochemistry, a branch of thermodynamics, focuses on energy changes during chemical reactions, which is the main subject of this unit.
Thermodynamic Systems
A thermodynamic system is the specific part of the universe being studied. Its immediate environment is called the surroundings. Systems are classified as:
- Open: Exchange both matter and energy with
Primary Air Pollutants: Sources, Impacts, and Control
Primary Air Pollutants
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Properties: Colorless gas, reactive, soluble, and has a pungent odor at higher concentrations.
Sources:
- Natural: Organic matter decomposition, volcanic eruptions.
- Anthropogenic: Industrial processes (fossil fuel combustion, refining, chemical manufacturing).
Fate: Oxidizes to form SO3, leading to acid rain through dry and wet deposition.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Properties: NO (nitric oxide) is colorless, odorless, and non-flammable. NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) is a reddish-
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