Chemical Reactions and Matter: Understanding the Basics
Chemistry: Reactions and Matter
Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions are the processes by which one or more substances are transformed into one or more different substances.
Pure Substances
A pure substance is a type of material that cannot be separated into other types of matter by the simplest physical methods and has a constant composition.
- Element: A pure substance that cannot be decomposed by chemical processes.
- Compound: A pure substance formed by two or more chemically bonded elements in fixed
Atomic Models and Chemical Compounds: A Comprehensive Study
Atomic Models and Chemical Compounds
Thomson’s Atomic Model
Imagine the atom as a lump of positively charged matter with negatively charged electrons embedded within it, like a watermelon.
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
Rutherford decided to bombard atoms in a very thin gold foil with projectiles. He used newly discovered particles, much smaller than atoms but very heavy, with a mass four times greater than that of a hydrogen atom and a charge twice that of an electron, but positive. These particles
Read MoreLiquefaction, Complexation, Surface Tension, and Raoult’s Law
Liquefaction of Gases
Liquefaction of gases is the process of converting a gas into a liquid state. This process involves reducing the temperature and/or increasing the pressure of the gas to a point where it condenses into a liquid.
Principles Involved
- Joule-Thomson Effect
- Critical Temperature
- Critical Pressure
Faraday’s Method
Faraday’s method is a historical technique used to liquefy gases, developed by Michael Faraday in the 19th century. The method involves:
- Compression
- Cooling
- Expansion
- Liquefaction
Working
Read MoreAtomic Structure and Chemical Laws: A Comprehensive Summary
Lavoisier: Conservation of Mass
In any chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants is equal to the mass of the products. For example, 5g + 1.2g = 3.7g.
Proust: Definite Proportions
The proportion among the masses in which two or more elements combine to form a certain compound is always constant and independent of the procedure used to form it.
Dalton: Multiple Proportions
When two elements combine together to form more than one compound, the masses of one of them that combine with the same mass of
Read MoreEssential Chemistry: Functional Groups, Reactions, and Gas Laws
Haloalkanes
Haloalkanes (Alkyl halides) (R-X): Fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo. In the longest chain, count where the halogen is closest. For more than one, use di, tri, tetra. Common names: MONO: alkyl + ide; DI: alkyl(ene) + ide; TRI: Chloro, fluoro, etc.; TETRA: Carbon + tetra + halogen(ide).
Alcohol formation: R-X + NaOH = R-OH + Na-X
Alcohols
Alcohols (R-OH): Number the chain with the closest -OH. Change “ane” to “ol”. Common name: Use the alkyl name (e.g., Methyl) followed by “alcohol”.
Esterification:
Read MoreCraft Beer Production: Ingredients, Brewing, and Fermentation
Ingredients
- Water: Essential for all stages of brewing.
- Malt: Typically barley, steeped, germinated, and dried to provide sugars.
- Adjuncts: Maize grits, corn syrup, rice, beet, or cane sugar. These can lighten the beer’s flavor or color.
- Hops: Provide bitterness, aroma, and inhibit bacterial growth.
- Yeast: Converts sugar into CO2, alcohol, and flavors.
Brewing Process
Brewhouse
- Raw Material Preparation: Malt is milled, keeping husks intact if desired. The kernel is milled to small, uniform particles, minimizing