Water Treatment Technologies: Membrane Separation, Chlorination, and Activated Sludge
Water Treatment Technologies
Membrane Separation
Membrane separation techniques, such as electrodialysis reversal (EDAR), are used to remove dissolved matter from water, achieving high levels of quality. However, these methods can be expensive, involving semipermeable membranes and dialysis.
Ultrafiltration, a process employing semipermeable membranes, separates contaminants from water under a pressure gradient. It is suitable for macromolecules and industrial effluent treatment.
Reverse Osmosis (RO)
Read MoreUnderstanding Intermolecular Forces, Unit Cells, and Crystal Defects
Intermolecular Forces in Molecular Crystals
Q: What are the various types of intermolecular forces of attraction that hold molecules of molecular crystals together?
A:
- Weak dipole-dipole interactions in polar molecules such as solid HCl, H2O, SO2, etc., which possess a permanent dipole moment.
- Very weak dispersion or London forces in non-polar molecules such as solid CH4, H2, etc. These forces are also involved in monoatomic solids like argon, neon, etc.
- Intermolecular hydrogen bonds in solids such as
Key Concepts and Definitions in Chemistry
- Atom: The smallest unit into which matter can be divided by chemical means.
- Specific Heat: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by 1°C.
- Calorie: The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1°C.
- Science: A systematized set of logical knowledge that relates facts to each other.
- Compound: A homogeneous substance resulting from the chemical union of two or more elements; therefore, it may experience further decomposition.
- Liquid
Understanding the Laws of Chemical Reactions: A Comprehensive Review
Laws Governing Chemical Reactions
Laws are pondered and are based on experiments where quantities are measured in the masses of the substances involved in chemical reactions. The systematic use of the balance allowed us to obtain quantitative data, providing an overview of chemical reactions that led to the laws of weight and the birth of chemistry as a science.
A) Lavoisier’s Law of Conservation of Mass
In a chemical reaction, the sum of the masses of the reactants equals the sum of the masses of
Read MoreIonic & Molecular Compounds, Acids, Bases, Reactions
Ionic and Molecular Compounds
Atoms, Ions, and Molecules
- Atoms: The fundamental building blocks of matter, consisting of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
- Ions: Atoms or molecules that have gained or lost electrons, resulting in a net charge. Cations are positively charged, while anions are negatively charged.
- Molecules: Groups of two or more atoms chemically bonded together. They can be elements (O₂) or compounds (H₂O).
Seven Diatomic Molecular Gases
- Names: Hydrogen,
Understanding Tissue Staining: Methods and Mechanisms
Tissue Staining: Methods and Mechanisms
Matching Dyes to Colors: According to their coloring:
- Topographic: Provides an overall view of a fabric’s structure (e.g., H&E).
- Cytological: Allows for intimate study of cells (e.g., Pap smears, panoptic cell structure).
- Histochemical: Tries to highlight chemical substances or a determined chemical function (e.g., Perls, PAS highlight tissue structures, MSB Masson (collagenase), Orcein (TC), silver impregnation (reticulin)).
According to the coloring procedure:
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