Chemical Bonds and Intermolecular Forces
Chemical Bonds
Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonds involve the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms, creating two oppositely charged ions. Metals lose electrons to become positively charged cations, while nonmetals gain electrons to become negatively charged anions.
Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds form between atoms with similar electronegativities (affinity for electrons). Atoms share electrons to achieve a stable octet configuration.
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
These bonds occur between identical atoms
Read MoreFood Preservation Methods & Common Preservatives
Preservatives
Food spoilage is caused by bacteria, yeast, and mold, leading to economic losses for manufacturers, distributors, and consumers. Some microorganisms produce harmful toxins, such as botulinum toxin (found in improperly sterilized canned goods) and aflatoxins (produced by certain molds), which are highly toxic and carcinogenic.
Methods of Food Preservation
There are two main approaches to preventing food spoilage:
- Physical methods: These include irradiation, heating, dehydration, and freezing
Pharmaceutical Equipment and Processes
Theory of filtration
The flow of any liquid through a filter follows a basic rule that govern the flow of any liquid through a medium. The rate of flow may be expressed in volume/time. The theory of filtration gives an idea about the factors that affect the rate of filtration through a filtering medium.
The scientist which gives the theory of filtration is darcy and this is also known as darcy’s law. They give an equation about the theory of filtration.
V=KAΔP/ηtWhere v is the viscosity, K =
Read MoreColor Separation Techniques in Printing
UNIT 13: THEORY OF REFLECTION
The pigmented color image is expressed in our eyes and by recruitment teams based on the colored light that is able to reflect, in the case of opaque media (pigmented areas), or transmitted in the case of transparent filters.
Color vision is always made by additive synthesis, so we must turn to their principles. Any pigmented surface will tend to absorb light that reaches those who do not have RGB components and reflect the existing ones, which, being appreciated by
Metallurgy and Non-Metals: Processes and Properties
Metallurgical Processes
Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgy utilizes aqueous solutions to extract metals from ores. It involves leaching the ore with a solvent, followed by separation and purification steps to isolate the desired metal. This method is commonly used for extracting copper, nickel, and gold.
Oxidative Refining
Oxidative refining refines metals through oxidation reactions, removing impurities or transforming the metal into a more desirable form. An example is the refining of impure copper through
Read MoreAtomic Theory and Subatomic Particles: Key Concepts Explained
Key Concepts in Atomic Theory
Which of the following was one of Dalton’s improvements over Democritus’s ideas?
Atoms retain their identity in a chemical reaction.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Atoms of the same element are always identical.
Which discovery did J. J. Thomson make that improved upon Dalton’s atomic theory?
Atoms contain tiny, negatively charged electrons
Which of the following was originally a tenet of Dalton’s atomic theory, but had to be revised about a century ago?
Atoms are tiny indivisible
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