Industrial Chemistry: Polymers, Corrosion, and Water Analysis

Posted by on Aug 6, 2026 in Chemistry | 0 comments

Preparation and Applications of PMMA

Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), also known as acrylic glass, is prepared by the addition polymerization (free radical mechanism) of Methyl Methacrylate (MMA) monomers using a benzoyl peroxide initiator at 60°C–80°C.

Reaction:
n[CH2=C(CH3)COOCH3] —Peroxide/Δ→ [—CH2—C(CH3)(COOCH3)—]n

The peroxide decomposes into free radicals, opening the double bond of the MMA to form a linear polymer chain.

Properties: High optical clarity (92% light transmission,

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Lanthanide Separation, Trans Effect, and Inner Sphere Mechanism

Posted by on Aug 5, 2026 in Chemistry | 0 comments

Separation of Lanthanides by Ion Exchange

Lanthanides are challenging to separate due to their similar chemical properties and common +3 oxidation state. Due to lanthanide contraction, their ionic radii decrease gradually from La³⁺ to Lu³⁺. The ion exchange method is highly efficient for the purification of individual lanthanides.

Principle

This method relies on slight differences in the stability of complexes formed with agents like EDTA, ammonium citrate, or α-hydroxyisobutyric acid (α-HIBA)

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Cosmic Abundance and Geochemical Principles

Posted by on Jul 29, 2026 in Chemistry | 0 comments

1. Cosmic Abundance of Elements

The cosmic abundance of elements refers to the relative distribution and concentration of chemical elements throughout the universe. Determination of cosmic abundance relies primarily on stellar spectroscopy and the geochemical analysis of primitive meteorites (specifically CI carbonaceous chondrites).

Key Characteristics

  • Dominance of Light Elements: Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He) make up approximately 98% to 99% of all ordinary (baryonic) matter in the universe (H ≈
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Pharmaceutical Chemistry: Principles, Tests, and Standards

Posted by on Jul 10, 2026 in Chemistry | 0 comments

Radiations and Radiopharmaceuticals

Properties of Alpha (α), Beta (β), and Gamma (γ) Radiations

  • Alpha (α): Helium nuclei (+2 charge), high mass, low penetration, high ionization. Stopped by paper.
  • Beta (β): High-speed electrons/positrons (±1 charge), small mass, moderate penetration/ionization. Stopped by aluminium.
  • Gamma (γ): Electromagnetic waves (no mass/charge), speed of light, high penetration, low ionization. Stopped by lead/concrete.

Precautions for Radiopharmaceuticals

  • Use protective gear
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Principles of Electrochemistry and Chromatography

Posted by on Jul 9, 2026 in Chemistry | 0 comments

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

Definitions

Oxidizing Agent: An oxidizing agent is a substance that accepts electrons and is reduced during a chemical reaction.

Reducing Agent: A reducing agent is a substance that donates electrons and is oxidized during a chemical reaction.

Example Reaction

Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu

  • Zn: Reducing Agent
  • Cu2+: Oxidizing Agent

Note: There is no difference between Galvanic and Voltaic cells; both terms refer to the same electrochemical system.

Comparison of Electrochemical Cells

FeatureGalvanic
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Scientific Study: Variables, Units, and Methodology

Posted by on Jul 7, 2026 in Chemistry | 0 comments

Scientific Study: Very Short Questions

  1. (2081 Koshi Q.No. 2a)
    Dependent variable: Solubility of salt.
  2. What is the dependent variable in throwing a stone with a stretched rubber band?
    Answer: Distance travelled by the stone.
  3. Write the fundamental units included in the unit of force.
    Answer: Kilogram (kg), metre (m), and second (s).
  4. Write a difference between fundamental unit and derived unit.
    Answer: Fundamental units are independent, whereas derived units are formed from fundamental units.
  5. Define controlled
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