Respiration, Photosynthesis, Carbon Allotropes and Essential Elements
1. Respiration and Photosynthesis
Ans. Respiration is the process in which organisms break down glucose with oxygen to release energy (ATP) for cellular functions, producing carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. Photosynthesis is the opposite process, carried out by plants and algae, which uses light energy, water, and carbon dioxide to create glucose (a sugar for energy) and oxygen. These processes are interconnected: the glucose and oxygen from photosynthesis provide the fuel for respiration,
Atomic Structure to Organic Chemistry: Key Concepts
Unit I: Atomic Structure
Bohr’s Atomic Theory
Bohr proposed that electrons revolve in specific circular orbits around the nucleus without radiating energy. These orbits are quantized and labeled by the principal quantum number n. The angular momentum of the electron is given by mvr = n(h/2π). The energy of an electron in a hydrogen-like atom is E = −13.6 Z2/n2 eV. When an electron jumps between energy levels, radiation is absorbed or emitted: ΔE = hν = hc/λ.
Limitations of Bohr’s
Read MoreWater Treatment Chemistry: Hardness Testing and Boiler Management
Estimation of Water Hardness by EDTA Method
Principle of EDTA Titration
- Hardness of water is due to the presence of Ca²+ and Mg²+ ions.
- In the EDTA method, a solution of Ethylenediamine Tetraacetic Acid (EDTA) is used as a titrant.
- EDTA forms stable, soluble complexes with Ca²+ and Mg²+ ions.
- At the endpoint, all Ca²+ and Mg²+ ions are complexed, and the indicator shows a color change.
Chemical Reactions:
Ca²+ + EDTA&sup4;− →
Read MoreGeneral Chemistry 1 Principles and Formulas
Fundamentals and Measurements
- SI Units: Mass (kg), Length (m), Time (s), Temperature (K), Amount (mol), Volume (m³ or L = 10-3m³).
- Prefixes: Pico (10-12), nano (10-9), micro (10-6), milli (10-3), centi (10-2), kilo (103), mega (106).
- Density: d = mass / volume. To convert g/cm³ to kg/m³, multiply by 1,000 (e.g., 6.353 g/cm³ = 6,353 kg/m³).
- Temperature Conversions: °F = (9/5)°C + 32; K = °C + 273.15 (e.g., 56.1°C = 133°F).
- Significant Figures:
- Non-zero digits are always significant. Zeros between
Chemical Bonds, Polarity, and Molecular Geometry
The Fundamental Role of Chemical Bonds
Chemical bonds play an important role in the cells of all living things. They are essential for the existence of substances in materials, significantly affecting the structures and physical properties of elements and compounds.
Molecular Polarity and Dipole Moments
Molecules can be classified as polar or non-polar based on their total dipole moments. All diatomic molecules containing polar covalent bonds are polar molecules since they possess a net dipole moment.
Read MoreQualitative Inorganic Salt Analysis Procedures
Preliminary Tests
| Experiment | Observation | Inference |
| Color of the salt | Colourless | Absence of Cu2+, Fe2+, etc. |
| Odour of the salt | Ammoniacal smell Vinegar smell | NH4+ Acetate ion |
| Solubility | In water with no precipitate with Na2CO3 In dilute HCl, soluble | NH4+ No Group 1 cations |
| Salt is heated in a dry test tube | Colorless gas turns lime water milky Reddish brown fumes Smell of ammonia Pleasant fruity smell | Carbonate Nitrate ion NH4+ Acetate ion |
| Flame test | Pale green Brick red | Ba2+ Ca2+ |
| Ash test | Blue ash | Al3+ |
Systematic Analysis for Anions
| Experiment | Observation | Inference |
| Dilute |