Understanding Drug Interactions: Effects, Antagonism, and Absorption
Understanding Drug Interactions
General Effects of Drug Interactions
In many instances, drugs or substances are administered concomitantly with the aim of achieving a better therapeutic effect through interaction. An example of this search for beneficial effects through interaction mechanisms is the use of antagonists to displace a toxin from a receptor and reverse poisoning. However, the consequences of the interaction can be harmful or toxic if they render a necessary drug ineffective.
Types of Antagonism
There
Read MoreUnderstanding Genetic Engineering and its Uses
Genetic Engineering: Techniques and Applications
Although the structure of DNA was discovered in the mid-twentieth century by Francis Crick and James Watson, a breakthrough occurred in the 1970s with the development of two crucial biological tools:
- Identification of restriction enzymes.
- The polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
These tools, along with a greater understanding of genes, ushered in the era of Biotechnology, a science integrating natural sciences and engineering to utilize organisms, cells,
Read MoreRespiratory Tract Anatomy, Function, and Blood-Brain Barrier
Respiratory Tract: Composition and Function
The respiratory tract includes:
Nose (nasal cavity) -> Pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx) -> Larynx -> Trachea -> Bronchi (primary, secondary (lobar), tertiary (segmental) -> Bronchioles -> Terminal bronchioles -> Respiratory bronchioles -> Alveolar ducts -> Alveoli
Trachea
- Tough but flexible “windpipe”, anterior to esophagus
- Attached to cricoid cartilage (at about C6 vertebral level) & ends within mediastinum
Stem Cell Reprogramming and Therapeutic Applications
Reprogramming Adult Cells to Pluripotency
Can terminally differentiated adult cells be reprogrammed to become pluripotent?
- Yes, this was demonstrated by semi-starving cells from a mammary cell donor, effectively reversing their maturation (dedifferentiation). The process involved taking an enucleated egg from a donor and fusing it with the mammary cell. The resulting cell was cultured to form an embryo, which was then implanted into a surrogate sheep. This sheep carried the embryo to term and gave
Drug Elimination, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Levels
Renal Drug Elimination
Renal elimination is the primary route for drug removal from the body, involving several kidney excretion mechanisms.
Enterohepatic Recirculation (Biliary Excretion)
Some drugs are excreted through bile, which is released into the duodenum to aid fat emulsification during digestion.
Pulmonary Elimination
The respiratory mucosa can eliminate volatile substances like anesthetics and alcohol.
Elimination Through Glands
Elimination can occur through glands, notably the mammary gland,
Read MoreUnderstanding Biomembranes: Structure, Function, and Properties
Understanding Biomembranes
A necessary condition for life is the existence of a barrier separating cell contents from the environment, since the cells must retain an internal environment appropriate to carry out the numerous chemical reactions necessary to sustain life. Biomembranes are the place where many chemical reactions take place. They regulate the entry and exit of materials from the cell. Some membranes are selectively permeable barriers that regulate the flow of molecules inwards and outwards,
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