Central Dogma, Cellular Respiration, and Genetics
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
The central dogma of molecular biology illustrates the mechanisms of transmission and expression of genetic inheritance, following the discovery of its coding in the double helix of DNA. It suggests a unidirectional flow of information from genes to proteins. DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA), which is then translated into protein, the functional element of the cell. The dogma also states that only DNA can replicate, thus reproducing and transmitting
Read MoreAnatomy of the Medulla, Liver, Kidneys, and Heart
Medulla Oblongata (Brainstem)
The medulla oblongata, or brainstem myelencephalon, is the lowest of the three segments of the brainstem. It is located between the pons (above) and the spinal cord (below). It takes the form of a truncated cone, approximately three inches long. It is bordered by the spinal cord at the decussation of the pyramids (Mistichèlli). The division with the pons is clear and is marked by the pontomedullary sulcus. However, this division is only visible on the anterior and lateral
Read MoreOrigin of Life & Astrobiology: Essential Concepts
Essential Compounds for Life
Inorganic Compounds
Water and mineral salts are essential for the function of living beings.
Organic Compounds
Found only in living beings, characterized by covalent bonds.
- Polymers: Macromolecules formed by monomers.
- Carbohydrates: Primary source of energy.
- Lipids: Store energy and have regulatory functions.
- Proteins: Perform transport, structural, and hormonal functions; enzymes act as chemical catalysts.
- Nucleic Acids: Store and transmit genetic information.
Defining Life and
Read MoreDental Implant Placement: Principles and Considerations
Principles of Dental Implant Positioning: Anatomical Limitations
To maximize the probability of success, an implant should be placed entirely within the bone and away from significant anatomical structures. Ideally, there should be 10 mm of vertical bone dimension and 6 mm of horizontal dimension to place the implant. This size prevents the invasion of anatomical structures. There should also be adequate space between adjacent implants; usually, 3 mm is acceptable. This space is required to ensure
Read MoreEnzyme Kinetics and Regulation Mechanisms
Enzyme Reactions and Characteristics
1. CH3CH2COO– to CH3CH3 + CO2 – Lyase
2. D-amino acid to L-amino acid – Isomerase
3. Adenylribose + H2O – Hydrolase
4. An enzyme is inhibited competitively, but to varying degrees, by the same concentration of three different inhibitors – Lower Km indicates higher affinity.
5. The figure corresponds to the kinetics of inhibition of an enzyme assay. Curve I could correspond to a curve in the absence of an inhibitor.
6. Isoenzyme is defined as: e. None of the above
Biology Basics: Key Concepts and Definitions
Surface Tension in Water
What is surface tension in water? Water molecules forming a ‘skin’ on the surface.
Levels of Organization in Living Things
Which level of organization in living things is directly above the cell? Tissue.
Ecology
What does the field of ecology study? Interactions between organisms and their environment.
Elements in Biomolecules
Elements that form carbohydrates and proteins: C, H, O.
The Scientific Method
What is the purpose of forming a hypothesis in the scientific method? To make
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