Ecosystem Energy Flow, Nutrient Cycles, and Plant Responses
Food: Contains energy and nutrients required for maintenance/survival, growth/development, and reproduction.
Carbon:
- Auto (from CO2, inorganic)
- Hetero (from organic molecules)
Energy:
- Photo (from light)
- Chemo (oxidizing inorganic or organic molecules)
Organisms:
- Prokaryotes: Have all carbon and energy types.
- Protists: Photoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs.
- Plants: Photoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs.
- Fungi and Animals: Chemoheterotrophs.
Food Chains: Show how energy & nutrients move between organisms.
Read MoreCommon Diseases: Etiology, Symptoms, and Management
Urinary Tract Infections
Etiopathogenesis: It depends on several factors, including host factors, bacterial virulence factors, and anatomical and physiological factors. Host factors— Factors that impair the immune response, such as immunosuppressive medications, HIV infection, or diabetes, can increase the risk of UTI. In addition, female anatomy (shorter urethra and closer proximity of urethral opening to the anus) makes women more prone to UTIs.
Clinical manifestations:
- A strong, persistent urge
Understanding Allergy, Immunity, and Genetics
Allergy and Immune Response
Allergy
Anti-allergen interacts with mast cells, leading to histamine production and other cellular blood circulation effects.
Humoral Response
B lymphocytes produce antibodies (AC) that bind to antigens. AC functions include:
- Neutralizing antigens
- Agglutination
- Precipitation
- Activation of the complement system (a group of inactive proteins in plasma)
Cellular Response
Macrophages present antigens on their surface along with Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) proteins. This
Read MoreScientific Method and Biology: Key Concepts Explained
The Scientific Method
The scientific method is a process used across all sciences. The steps include:
- Observation of events
- Formulation of a hypothesis
- Corroboration of hypotheses through testing
- Development of a theory
Scientific Knowledge
Scientific knowledge is limited to what can be perceived directly by the senses or through instruments that amplify the senses.
Biology: The Study of Life
Biology is the science that studies living organisms. Fields of study include:
- Descriptive or Structural Biology:
Cell Biology, Evolution, and Primordial Earth: Key Concepts
Cell Division and Processes
Interphase (I): Distinct nucleus, normal cell functions.
Prophase (P): Nuclear membrane breaks down, chromosomes condense, spindles form.
Metaphase (M): Chromosomes line up across the equator of the cell.
Anaphase (A): Chromatids migrate to poles.
Telophase (T): Two new nuclei form, chromosomes decondense.
Cytokinesis (C): Cytoplasm divides, resulting in two new cells.
Translation
- mRNA binds to ribosome.
- mRNA advances until AUG (start codon) is at the P site.
- tRNA binds to codon
The Human Nervous System: Structure and Function
Central Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS) is formed by the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for processing received information and controlling body functions.
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is formed by a set of nerves that connect the CNS with the rest of our body organs. Its function is to transmit information and conduct the CNS’s orders to the organs responsible for executing them.
Brain
The brain is located in the skull. It consists of the cerebrum,
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