Urinary Tract: Anatomy, Physiology, and Diseases
Urinary Tract Features
The urinary tract performs the following functions:
- Eliminates waste substances from cellular metabolism.
- Regulates body fluid composition.
- Serves as an endocrine gland.
Anatomy
Kidneys
Located on both sides of the spine (dorsolumbar area). They are surrounded by fat, which protects them from shock and keeps them in place. Kidneys filter blood and retain substances for reuse.
Parts:
- Cortex: The outer part where the nephrons are found. The nephron is in charge of filtering the blood.
Understanding Carbohydrates: Types, Functions, and Importance
Carbohydrates: An Introduction
Carbohydrates: These biomolecules are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO). They always contain a carbonyl group (a group attached to an oxygen atom by a double bond), which can be either an aldehyde group (-CHO) or a keto group (-CO-). They are defined as polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhydroxyketones.
Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified into three main categories:
- Monosaccharides: These are single-unit carbohydrates, consisting of a single
Cell Division, Genetics, and Chemical Reactions Explained
Cell Division: Interphase and Mitosis
Interphase is when DNA duplication occurs.
Interphase Stages:
- G1: Synthesis of RNA and proteins, increasing cell cytoplasm.
- S: DNA replication results in two chromatids.
- G2: Additional growth and preparation for mitosis.
Mitosis: Somatic Cell Division
Mitosis is an equational division that occurs in somatic cells. It is divided into four stages:
- Prophase: A long step involving the disappearance of the nuclear envelope (carioteca), centriole duplication, spindle formation,
Diabetes and Hormones: Metabolic Effects
Metabolic Effects of Hormones and Diabetes
Insulin and Glucagon
1. Which one of the following is characteristic of low insulin levels?
a) Increased formation of ketone bodies
2. Which one of the following statements concerning glucagon is incorrect?
a) It promotes gluconeogenesis by stimulating the generation of cAMP in target cells
3. The metabolic effect of growth hormone action is:
a) Increase oxidation of glucose and amino acids
4. Which of the following counter-regulatory hormones acts through binding
Read MoreFemale Reproductive System: Anatomy, Development, and Function
The Female Reproductive System: Development and Function
In sexual reproduction, females produce female gametes called ovules, and males produce male gametes called spermatozoa. These two reproductive cells unite to form a zygote. Fertilization is internal, meaning the egg and sperm unite inside the female reproductive system. The development of the new being also occurs in the female reproductive tract, and the baby is born alive and fully formed; this is known as viviparity.
Processes of Reproduction
- Production
Prenatal Development Stages and Teratogen Risks
Prenatal Development Stages
There are three main stages of prenatal development:
Germinal Period (First 2 Weeks)
- Begins with the fusion of ovum and sperm (fertilization).
- The fertilized egg (zygote) travels down the Fallopian tubes and attaches to the endometrial lining.
- The zygote becomes multicellular, now referred to as a blastocyst.
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Potential Complications:
- Ectopic Pregnancy: Zygote attaches to the Fallopian tube instead of the uterine lining, posing a serious risk to the mother.
- Zygote fails to attach