Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium and Evolution
Genotype | Number of Individuals in the Population with that Genotype | Number of Allele A Contributed to the Gene Pool by that Genotype | Number of Allele a Contributed to the Gene Pool by that Genotype |
AA | 50 | 50×2=100 | 50×0=0 |
Aa | 40 | 40×1=40 | 40×1=40 |
aa | 10 | 10×0=0 | 10×2=20 |
Total | 100 | 140 | 60 |
Let the letter p stand for the frequency of allele A. Let the letter q stand for the frequency of allele a. We can calculate p and q as follows:
- p = number of A alleles/total number of alleles = 140/200 = 0.7
- q = number of a alleles/total number
Cell Types, Structures, and Division: A Comprehensive Overview
Cell Types and Characteristics
Protoctists
Algae
- Cell wall: Present
- Healthy cell: Cytoplasm contains one or more chloroplasts and performs photosynthesis.
Protozoa
- Actively move using flagella or cilia.
Fungi
- Thick cell wall made of chitin.
- Heterotrophic nutrition.
Plant Cells
- Cell wall composed of cellulose.
- Membrane contains chloroplasts (green).
- Do not move if vacuoles are present.
Animal Cells
- Some have flagella, many organelles in the cytoplasm.
Multicellular Organisms
Animal Tissues
- Epithelial: Covers internal
Cellular Components and Their Functions
Cytosol
The cytosol is the semi-solid fraction of the cell, primarily composed of water, salts, and both small and large water-soluble molecules. It includes supramolecular complexes such as the cytoskeleton, ribosomes, and centrioles. Additionally, it contains polysaccharide granules, lipid droplets, and pigments. The majority of cellular metabolism, including protein synthesis in ribosomes, occurs here.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that maintains cell structure and
Read MoreUnderstanding Viruses: Composition, Types, and Cycles
Concept of Virus
Viruses are very simple, microscopic particles that consist only of a nucleic acid (viral genome) and some envelope proteins (capsid). Therefore, they are not cells and are not surrounded by membranes, forming acellular organizational systems. They exist on the boundary between the living and the nonliving.
Composition of Viruses
The composition of a virus is very simple, consisting of a single molecule of nucleic acid, which can be:
- Single-stranded RNA
- Double-stranded RNA
- Single-stranded
Biological Energy Processes and Genetic Variation
Biological Processes that Generate Energy
1. Photosynthesis: The process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria capture and utilize light energy to convert inorganic matter from their external environment into organic matter used for growth and development.
2. Chemosynthesis: The biological production of organic matter from molecules of carbon and other nutrients, using the oxidation of inorganic molecules.
3. Anaerobic Respiration: A biological process of oxidation-reduction of sugars and other
Read MoreSensory Receptors and Human Body Functions
Sensory Receptors and Their Functions
Sensory receptors are responsible for capturing information and relaying it to the nervous system. These receptors are activated when there are changes triggered by specific stimuli.
- Photoreceptors: Located in the eyes, they detect light stimuli.
- Mechanoreceptors: Stimulated by mechanical changes, pressure, contact, and sound waves.
- Chemoreceptors: Capture information about chemical changes. Taste and smell belong to this group.
- Thermoreceptors: Stimulated by temperature