Protein Structure, Fatty Acids, and Metabolism: Key Concepts
Protein Primary Structure
- Consists of a sequence of amino acids.
- Peptide bonds link amino acid residues.
Protein Secondary Structure
- Stabilized by hydrogen bonds between amino and carboxyl groups of amino acids.
- Composed of regular structures and repetitive polypeptide chains.
Protein Tertiary Structure
- Stabilized by noncovalent interactions.
- Disulfide bonds confer greater thermal stability.
- Can be destabilized by chemical agents such as urea and β-mercaptoethanol.
Protein Domains
- Domains are independent
Cell Biology: Macromolecules, Processes, and Genetics
Key Concepts in Cell Biology
- Water’s hydrogen bonds give it unique properties like cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension.
- Monomers form polymers through dehydration synthesis, while hydrolysis breaks polymers into monomers.
- Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) store genetic information and are composed of nucleotides (deoxy/ribose, phosphate, and a nitrogen base).
- Proteins are made of amino acids, and the polypeptide sequence determines their structure and function.
- Simple sugar monomers combine to form complex
Understanding Biospheres, Ecosystems, and Biomes
- What is a biosphere: The biosphere is the life zone of the Earth.
- What is an ecosystem: An ecosystem consists of the organisms that live in a particular area, the relationships between them, and their physical environment.
- What are biomes: Biomes are the large-scale ecosystems of the world.
- What is the biocenosis: It is the set of living beings in the ecosystem.
- What are biotic factors: They are the effects that other organisms have on a living being in its environment.
- What is a biotope: The biotope
Cell Cycle: Mitosis, Meiosis, and Biological Significance
Cell Cycle
The cell cycle is divided into two main phases: division (mitosis and cytokinesis) and interphase (the period between divisions).
Interphase
Interphase is the period between two successive cell divisions. It consists of the following phases:
- G1 Phase: Preparation for the S phase. This phase occurs at the end of the last division and involves preparation for DNA duplication. The restriction point in G1 determines whether the cell will proceed to the S phase.
- S Phase: Synthesis phase, involving
Immune Memory, Health, and Genetic Engineering Concepts
Immune Memory and Immunity
Immune memory is what allows the rapid recognition and response to infections. It is a unique and crucial role of the immune system. Immunity is the ability of a person to prevent infection or disease.
Antigens and Antibodies
Antigens: These are proteins or polysaccharides found on the surface of viruses and other pathogens.
Antibodies: These are proteins produced by lymphocytes, which belong to the immune system and act as a defense against viruses, bacteria, parasites, and
Read MoreRNA Transcription: Process and Stages
RNA Transcription: A Detailed Look
Transcription is the process of RNA synthesis, which occurs inside the cell nucleus. This process requires:
- A DNA strand that acts as a template.
- RNA polymerase (RNA-pol) enzyme.
- Ribonucleotide triphosphates (A, G, C, and U).
Ribonucleotides are linked via phosphodiester bonds. The overall process consists of three main stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.
Initiation
RNA polymerase recognizes specific sequences in the DNA that will be transcribed. These sequences
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