Fundamental Biological Processes: From Cells to Systems
Metabolism and Energy
Diabetes: Type 1 vs. Type 2
In Type 2 diabetes, insulin is produced, but it does not affect the body’s cells. In contrast, with Type 1 diabetes, no insulin is produced at all. Management for diabetes can include exercise and careful control of diet.
Cellular Respiration and Muscle Contraction
Glucose serves as a respiratory substrate, used to produce ATP. This ATP is required to unbind the globular myosin heads from the actin-myosin cross-bridges, allowing them to re-bind further
Read MoreCore Concepts in Biology: Reproduction, Homeostasis, and Gas Exchange
Human Reproductive System Anatomy
Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system components and their functions:
- Testicles: Produce sperm and testosterone.
- Epididymis: The reservoir for sperm, communicating with the testicles.
- Scrotum: Holds the testicles outside the body to maintain a temperature lower than core body temperature, which is essential for sperm viability.
- Seminal Duct (Vas Deferens): Transports sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.
- Urethra: A duct where the seminal ducts converge
Animal Kingdom Classification: Phyla, Embryology, and Vertebrate Groups
Invertebrates: The Animal Kingdom (Part 1)
Animals are characterized by their ability to move (motility).
Stages of Animal Embryonic Development
The formation of tissues and organs begins with three primary germ layers:
- Endoderm: The inner layer, which forms the digestive organs.
- Ectoderm: The external layer, which forms the nervous system and external coatings (skin).
- Mesoderm: The intermediate layer, which forms muscles, bones, and circulatory systems.
Classification by Tissue and Symmetry
- Parazoa (Subkingdom)
Essential Concepts of Human Circulation and Lymphatic Health
Key Functions of the Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system performs several vital roles:
- Fluid Collection: Collects excess interstitial fluid and returns it to the blood circulation.
- Fat Absorption: Absorbs and transports dietary fats in the intestine.
- Immune Defense: Defends the body from bacteria and other foreign particles.
This filtering process is primarily carried out by lymphocytes, which are especially abundant in the lymph nodes. When there is an infection, lymph nodes typically swell (become
Read MoreCellular Energy Metabolism and Regulation
Blood Glucose Regulation and Signaling
Specificity: Only cells with the appropriate receptor respond to a signal. Sensitivity: Signals are amplified, allowing them to work effectively at low concentrations.
Hormone Classification and Receptors
Hormones are categorized into three structural groups:
- Derivatives of Amino Acids (e.g., Epinephrine): Mostly not lipid soluble; bind to receptors on the surface of the target cell.
- Proteins (e.g., Insulin and Glucagon): Not lipid soluble; bind to receptors on
Cellular Anatomy: Structure and Function of Eukaryotic Organelles
Cell Structure and Function: The Basic Units of Life
Foundations of Cell Theory
The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of living things. All living things are composed of cells. All cells arise from other cells by the process of cell division. Scientists Schleiden and Schwann established these key tenets of cell theory.
Key Components of the Cell (Organelles)
Plasma Membrane
- Structure: A double layer of phospholipids (a lipid molecule combined with a phosphate group).
- Function: Controls