Overview of Osteology, Arthrology, and Myology
ITEM 3. OVERVIEW OF OSTEOLOGY
Classification of Bones
- Long Bones: Typical of limbs, their length reflects both the speed and power of motion. One axis predominates over the other two. They are subject to great traction. Their tubular shaft with a central medullary cavity widens (metaphysis) towards the expanded articular ends (epiphysis), which have separate ossification centers and are often multiple.
- Short Bones: Characterized by no axis predominating over the others. They are subject to compressive
Fish Breeding and Larval Rearing
Fish Breeding
Ovoviviparous vs. Viviparous
Fertilization, as with viviparous fish, is internal for ovoviviparous fish. However, the eggs are retained within the female until hatching. The developing fish are nourished by the egg yolk, not directly from the mother.
In viviparous fishes, fertilization is also internal. Unlike ovoviviparous fish, each embryo receives nutrients directly from the mother’s body, not from an egg reserve. These fish give birth to fully formed offspring.
Internal Fertilization
Fertilization
Read MoreBird Embryology: From Egg to Chick – Segmentation, Blastula & Gastrulation
Bird Embryology: From Egg to Chick
A. Fertilization and Egg Formation
After ovulation, the egg travels through the oviduct, where fertilization occurs. Glands in the oviduct secrete albumin, forming the egg white. The egg’s twisting journey through the oviduct’s spiral folds creates the chalazae, which hold the yolk in place. Shell membranes and the calcareous shell are also added during this process. The egg then enters the cloaca and is laid. This entire process takes approximately 16 to 20 hours.
Read MoreReptile Reproduction: From Snakes to Crocodiles
– Sexual dimorphism is very pronounced and difficult to distinguish males from females. The adult male is slightly smaller than the female, but has the longest tail and voluminous. Sometimes there are differences in the arrangement of the scales. In most cases the male has more plates and less ventral subcaudal.
Fertilization is internal in all reptiles
A) male reproductive organs
The male reproductive tract of snakes, has two hemipenis located at the base of the tail, ventral level, remaining
Cell Biology Basics: From Membrane to Molecules
Cell Membrane
The cell membrane protects the contents of the cell. It’s made up mainly of proteins and phospholipids.
Selectively Permeable
The cell membrane also helps control the materials that enter and leave. It’s selectively permeable, which means that some substances can pass through it while others cannot. The cell membrane must let in needed materials, such as oxygen and food molecules. And waste materials must move out of cells.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the main method by which small molecules
Read MoreCellular Biology Basics: A Comprehensive Guide
Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose, a process also known as the splitting of sugars. It produces 4 ATP molecules but requires 2 ATP molecules to function.
Krebs Cycle
The Krebs cycle occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria and completes the breakdown of pyruvic acid molecules to carbon dioxide. This process forms 2 ATP molecules, and chemical energy is released and captured in the form of NADH, FADH2, and ATP.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC) & ATP Synthase
The
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