Vertebrate Animals: Features and Evolution
Vertebrates: A Major Chordate Group
Vertebrates constitute the largest group within the chordates. All vertebrates have a backbone as a structural axis, a bony support that develops around the notochord, replacing it completely in many species. The spine is composed of bony elements, the vertebrae, which surround the nerve cord along its entire length.
Five Types of Vertebrates
- Fish
- Amphibians
- Reptiles
- Birds
- Mammals
General Features of Vertebrates
In all adult vertebrates, the notochord is replaced or surrounded
Evolution and Genetic Engineering: Key Concepts and Challenges
Gene Therapy
Gene therapy involves inserting genes into cells to treat diseases, including hereditary conditions. In vitro therapy extracts and processes patient cells in a lab, introducing the desired gene before returning them to the patient. In vivo therapy directly introduces a gene-carrying vector into the organism.
Transgenic Plants
Transgenic plants have genes transferred to them for:
- Herbicide resistance, insect and disease resistance, and increased yield
- Enhanced photosynthesis
- Improved product
Human Digestion and Respiration Processes
Digestive Process
Enzymes are unseen substances produced by the body that mix with food. In the digestive tract, a series of chemical reactions take place, called chemical digestion.
Mastication: Mechanical process of crushing food into smaller pieces.
Tongue: Involved in moving food to other teeth.
Salivation: When we put food in our mouth, salivary glands produce saliva, a liquid that mixes with food to form the food bolus. Saliva has three functions:
- Starts the chemical digestion of carbohydrates
Revolutionizing Genetics and Biotechnology
Revolution in Genetics and Biotechnology
Introduction:
Genetic discoveries in the 21st century have led to the development of techniques such as:
- In vitro fertilization
- Cloning
- Gene therapy (curing diseases by manipulating genes)
Genetics has evolved significantly thanks to the discovery of DNA.
DNA and RNA
These are nucleic acids, core components of the cell.
Chemical Composition:
- Functions of DNA: To maintain genetic information and pass it on to daughter cells during cell division.
- Why are we different
Understanding the Excretory and Urinary Systems
Excretory System
The excretory system is responsible for removing toxins and wastes from our body.
The excretory system consists of the urinary tract, lungs, and skin.
The excretory system should be added to the large intestine or colon, waste that accumulates in the feces to be excreted through the anus.
Urinary System
The excretory system is a set of organs responsible for the elimination of nitrogenous waste products of metabolism known as urine, in the form of urea and creatinine. Its architecture
Plant Biology: Nastic Movements, Reproduction, Pollination, Nutrition
The Nasties: Nastic Movements
Nastic movements in plants are responses to stimuli, determined by the plant’s organ structure. These reactions are rapid and reversible, triggered by various stimuli like light, temperature, or touch. Examples include photonasty (response to light) and thigmonasty (response to touch).
Reproduction in Bryophytes
Bryophytes are seedless, nonvascular plants that require a moist environment for growth and reproduction. The dominant phase is the gametophyte (sexual phase),
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