Hormones, Reproduction, Immunity, and Renal Function
Reproductive Hormones and Functions
Major Classes of Reproductive Hormones:
- Androgens – steroids
- Estrogens – steroids
- Gonadotropins – protein hormones
- Progesterones – steroids
Androgens (Masculinizing Actions)
Key Androgens: Testosterone, DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone), Androstenedione, DHT (dihydrotestosterone).
Testosterone
- Produced by Leydig cells in testes, ovaries, adrenal gland, and placenta.
- Stimulates testes and penis function.
- Induces male secondary sex characteristics.
- Stimulates protein anabolism,
Cellular Metabolism: Energy, Reactions, and Pathways
Metabolism: Cellular Reactions and Energy
Metabolism is the set of reactions that occur within a cell, through which it gains and uses energy. These reactions maintain ionic concentrations and continuously regenerate molecules and structures. The spontaneity of a chemical reaction is measured using a thermodynamic quantity called free energy.
Exergonic Reactions (Catabolism)
Exergonic reactions occur spontaneously, releasing energy. These degradation reactions result in products with less energy than
Read MoreBacterial, Fungal, and Parasitic Infections: Symptoms and Causes
Bacterial Infections
Acne Vulgaris Pathogen: Propionibacterium acnes (Humans) Signs and Symptoms: Sebum and dead cells clog pores, leading to papule and pustule formation, scarring, and distress. Extra: More common among teenagers and young adults. Hallmark: Cystic acne – an uncommon, severe form of acne with painful pustules. | Gas Gangrene (Clostridial Myonecrosis) Pathogen: Clostridium perfringens (Soil) Signs and Symptoms: Muscle and soft tissue destruction, gas pockets in tissues compress small blood |
Nervous and Endocrine Systems: Functions, Diseases, and Health
The Function of Relationship
1-Processes that are included in the function of relationship
- Adaptation of the organism to changing environmental conditions, both external and internal.
- The relationship and coordination of different parts of our body to act as a unit.
The processes involved in the function of relationship are made by: the sense organs that capture the information from the environment as a stimulus and transmit it to the nervous system that receives, processes and develops a response,
Read MoreCellular Processes: Glycolysis, Fermentation, and Microscopy
Cellular Processes and Microscopy
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm. Fermentation produces CO₂. An enzyme has 4 subunits and requires an iron ion. Brownian movement is the random, zigzag motion of tiny particles suspended in a liquid or gas, caused by collisions with fast-moving molecules. White Cloud is a salt. A parfocal microscope keeps the specimen in focus when changing objective lenses. When you move the slide left, the image appears to move right. A compound microscope inverts the image.
Read MorePhotosynthesis: Light, Dark Phases, and the Calvin Cycle
Light Phase
In the light phase, light absorption occurs in the antenna complex, capturing light and channeling it to the reaction centers. This creates an energy flux that passes through a series of redox molecules. In this process, reducing power (NADPH) and energy (ATP) are formed.
Dark Phase
In the dark phase, the energy formed in the light phase is utilized. Using CO2 and NADPH, and the energy from ATP, sugars are produced.
Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll a has a methyl group substituent on ring 2. Its
Read More