Prostaglandins: Synthesis, Functions, and Clinical Roles
Introduction to Prostaglandins
Prostaglandins are a group of physiologically active lipid compounds that have diverse, hormone-like effects in animals. Unlike classical hormones, they are not secreted from a gland and do not travel to a distant site but are synthesized at the site where they are needed.
Discovered by: Ulf von Euler in 1935 in human semen, who thought they originated from the prostate gland (hence the name).
Classification: Prostaglandins belong to a broader group of bioactive lipids
Microbial Hydrocarbon Cleanup: Bioremediation Techniques
Microbial Biodegradation of Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are major constituents of crude oil and petroleum. They can be biodegraded by naturally occurring microorganisms in freshwater and marine environments under a variety of aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
The Role of Microbes in Bioremediation
The ability of microorganisms—including bacteria, archaea, fungi, and algae—to break down hydrocarbons is the fundamental basis for both natural attenuation and enhanced bioremediation efforts.
Enhancing
Read MoreHoney Bee Respiration: How the Tracheal System Delivers Oxygen
Honey Bee Respiration: The Tracheal System
The European honey bee (Apis mellifera), belonging to the class Insecta, is a highly active terrestrial invertebrate that inhabits dry, open environments. It relies on intense aerobic metabolism to support energy-demanding behaviors, such as sustained flight, foraging, thermoregulation, and colony maintenance. Unlike mammals or fish, insects do not rely on a circulatory system to transport oxygen.
Instead, the honey bee uses a tracheal system—a highly branched
Read MoreCellular Energy and Macromolecules: Roles and Classification
Classification and Roles of Biological Macromolecules
Carbohydrates: Classification and Biological Roles
Carbohydrates are essential biomolecules classified based on the number of sugar units:
- Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars): Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
- Disaccharides (Two Monosaccharides): Examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
- Polysaccharides (Many Monosaccharides): Examples include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
Biological Roles of Carbohydrates
- Energy Source: They serve
Molecular Genetics: DNA Structure, Replication, and Repair
DNA Structure and Packaging
- Phosphate Group: Gives DNA its acidic properties.
- DNA Orientation: Written in the 5′ to 3′ direction.
- Complementary Pairing: Purine pairs with pyrimidine (A-T, G-C) ensuring constant width.
- Adenine (Purine) pairs with Thymine (Pyrimidine) via 2 hydrogen bonds.
- Guanine (Purine) pairs with Cytosine (Pyrimidine) via 3 hydrogen bonds.
- Backbone: Antiparallel structure; sugars are oriented differently to allow base pairing. The helix shields hydrophobic bases. There are approximately
Animal Biology Fundamentals: Cells, Tissues, and Systems
Animal Biology Fundamentals: Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus: Holds genetic material. Protected by a double membrane that separates it from the cytoplasm.
Vacuoles: Small sacs that store various substances.
Lysosomes: Produced by the Golgi apparatus; responsible for digesting materials inside the cell.
SER (Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum): Produces lipids and aids in detoxification (removal of toxic substances).
Mitochondria: Have two membranes; break down glucose to release energy via cellular respiration.
Cytoplasm: