Cellular Metabolism: Energy, Lipid Synthesis, and Gene Regulation

Fatty Acid Oxidation

Fatty acids carry more energy per carbon because they are more reduced. They also carry less water along because they are nonpolar. In contrast, glucose and glycogen are for short-term energy needs and quick delivery, with fat stored in adipose tissue.

Lipids are transported in the blood as chylomicrons. Unsaturated fatty acids have a bent structure.

Glycerol Activation

  • Glycerol kinase activates glycerol at the expense of ATP.
  • Subsequent reactions recover more than enough ATP to
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Human Metabolism Essentials: Pathways & Disorders

Carbohydrate Metabolism Fundamentals

Glycolysis: Key Outputs

  • Products: 2 Pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH

Carbohydrate Classification

  • Monosaccharides: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
  • Disaccharides:
    • Lactose (Glucose + Galactose)
    • Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)
  • Polysaccharides: Glycogen, Starch

Glycosylation vs. Glycation

  • Glycosylation: Enzymes add carbohydrates to proteins.
  • Glycation: Non-enzymatic attachment of glucose to proteins (e.g., HbA1c = glycated hemoglobin).

Blood Glucose Regulation

  • Low Blood Glucose: Glucagon activates
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Glycogen Metabolism: Synthesis and Breakdown

Glycogen Metabolism: Synthesis and Breakdown

Glycogen, the storage form of glucose, is a branched polymer crucial for energy regulation in the body. Both glycogen and starch store glucose for future metabolic needs. In animals, glycogen provides a rapidly accessible source of glucose, especially for tissues like the brain and red blood cells, which heavily rely on glucose as their primary energy source. While other tissues can utilize fatty acids or amino acids for energy, a constant supply of glucose

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Glycolysis and Enzyme Kinetics: Metabolic Pathways Explained

Enzyme Kinetics Fundamentals

Key equations in enzyme kinetics:

  • Kcat = Vmax / [E]t
  • V0 = Vmax[S] / (αKM + [S])

Enzyme Inhibition Types

KI: Dissociation constant for the inhibitor from the enzyme.

Competitive Inhibitors

  • Affects the slope of the Lineweaver-Burk plot.
  • Y-intercept (1/Vmax) does not change.
  • Apparent KM increases (when inhibitor concentration is high, the slope gets steeper and the line moves closer to the origin).

Uncompetitive Inhibitors

  • Apparent KM changes.
  • Vmax changes.
  • Results in parallel lines
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Understanding Carbohydrate Metabolism and Glycolysis

4. Metabolism of Carbohydrates: Glycolysis: All carbohydrates obtained from the diet are digested by pancreatic and salivary enzymes, absorbed by the intestine, and metabolized in the blood and liver. Glucose is distributed throughout the body.

Glycolysis: Transformation of pyruvic acid (pyruvate) from glucose. The net reaction is: Glucose + 2NAD+ + 2ADP → 2 Pyruvates + 2NADH + 2ATP. It’s a highly energetic pathway, although it is fundamental (common to all eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells). It

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Biochemistry Key Terms: Hydrolysis, Enzymes, and More

Biochemistry Key Terms

Lesson 1, 2, and 3

  • Hydrolysis reaction: The cleavage of a molecule by the addition of water.
  • Amphipathic compounds: Molecules with both polar and nonpolar regions.
  • Hydrophobic molecules: Molecules that are not readily dissolved in water.
  • Condensation reaction: The formation of cellular polymers from their subunits by the removal of water (reversal of hydrolysis).
  • Functional groups: Added groups that confer specific chemical properties on a molecule.
  • pH scale: A means of designating
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