Accounting and Finance Archives - Student Notes

Corporate Governance Principles, Theories and Regulations

Posted by admin on Aug 21, 2026 in Accounting and Finance | 0 comments

Meaning and Definitions

“Governance” from Latin ‘gubernare’ = ‘to steer’ (as in steering a ship).

OECD (1999): “A set of relationships between a company’s board, its shareholders and other stakeholders. It also provides the structure through which the objectives of the company are set, and the means of attaining those objectives, and monitoring performance, are determined.”

Cadbury Committee (1999): “Concerned with holding the balance between economic and social goals and between individual and communal

Financial Management Formulas and Ratio Analysis

Posted by admin on Jul 22, 2026 in Accounting and Finance | 0 comments

Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) Analysis

Contribution Margin (CM) per Unit = Selling Price − Variable Cost per Unit
CM Ratio = (Selling Price − Variable Cost) ÷ Selling Price × 100
Break-Even Units (BEU) = Fixed Expenses ÷ CM per Unit
Break-Even Sales (BES) = Fixed Expenses ÷ CM Ratio
Additional Units (AU) = Target Profit ÷ CM per Unit
Total Units (TU) = BEU + AU
Total Sales = TU × Selling Price
Margin of Safety = Actual Sales − BES

Net Present Value (NPV) Analysis

NPV = Σ (Cn × PV Factor) − Initial

Corporate Governance: Principles, Regulations, and Compliance

Posted by admin on Jun 25, 2026 in Accounting and Finance | 0 comments

Meaning, Objectives and Principles of Corporate Governance

Corporate Governance is the system by which companies are directed and controlled. It provides a framework for achieving a company’s objectives while balancing the interests of shareholders, management, customers, suppliers, financiers, government, and society.

Core Objectives

Ensuring management accountability
Protecting minority shareholders
Promoting transparency and ethical conduct
Complying with laws and regulations
Enhancing long-term shareholder

Essential Financial Formulas and Banking Metrics

Posted by admin on Jun 23, 2026 in Accounting and Finance | 0 comments

Unit 1: Interest and Returns

Simple Interest: I = P × i × t or I = P × i × days/360
Final Value: FV = P + I or FV = P(1 + i × t)
Compound Interest: FV = P(1 + i)^n
Present Value: PV = FV / (1 + i)^n
Period Return: Return = (FV – I0) / I0
AER: AER = (1 + Return)^(360/days) – 1

Unit 2: Deposits, Loans, and Credit

Deposits

Gross Interest: Igross = C0 × i
Tax: Tax = Igross × tax rate
Net Interest: Inet = Igross – Tax
Net Final Amount: Cnet = C0 + Inet
AER Calculations:
- General: AER = (1 + ik)^k – 1
- Monthly:

Accounting Principles and Financial Reporting Standards

Posted by admin on Jun 21, 2026 in Accounting and Finance | 0 comments

1. Qualitative Characteristics of Accounting Information

Fundamental Characteristics

Relevance: Information can influence decisions.
Faithful representation: Information is complete, neutral, and free from material error.

Enhancing Characteristics

Comparability: Helps users compare information across periods and entities.
Verifiability: Information can be checked and confirmed.
Timeliness: Available before it loses usefulness.
Understandability: Clear to users with reasonable business and accounting knowledge.

Financial Accounting Systems and Standard Practices