Spanish War of Independence & Rise of Liberalism: 1812 Constitution
1. The War of Independence and the Beginnings of the Liberal Revolution: Constitution of 1812
Napoleon’s biggest mistake was believing that the Spanish were to be as easily dominated as their kings, Charles IV and Ferdinand VII, had been. A minority of Spanish accepted the arrival of the French and Jose I. These individuals are called Francophiles, and they can be categorized into three types:
- Convinced: Those who believed a change would benefit Spain.
- Opportunists: Those who sided with the stronger power.
- Public officials: Those who did not want to lose their jobs.
The Revolutionary War has the following phases:
- The French army entered Spain to occupy strategic points. Then, the uprising of May 2nd in Madrid occurred, which spread across the country. There were outbreaks of resistance (Zaragoza, Gerona), but French superiority gradually became prevalent. However, unexpectedly, when the French arrived in Andalusia, they were defeated at the Battle of Bailen and had to hastily leave Spain. Madrid created a Board of Defense as a provisional government.
- Napoleon personally came to Spain at the head of his army and occupied the entire country except for the city of Cadiz.
- The Spanish people organized resistance to the invader in a very typical manner: guerrillas. These were small, rural armed groups engaged in attacks or actions that sought to surprise the French. Espoz y Mina, El Empecinado, and El Cura Merino are notable figures from this period.
- The Duke of Wellington landed in Portugal with an English army to join the many Spanish and together expel the French from Spain. After the victories of Arapiles, Vitoria, and San Marcial, this was achieved in 1814.
General Features of Liberalism
- It was imposed in Spain in 1833.
- Liberalism was supported by a select minority. It was against democracy and popular government.
- It imposed a constitution as the fundamental law of the regime, but there were no rights for the people.
- It imposed a parliamentary system in which an assembly represented the country.
- Suffrage was censitario, meaning only a few were eligible to vote.
- The king reigned but did not govern. Neither did the people govern, but rather a minority.
- The ruling elite was composed of three distinct groups:
- Intellectuals: Those who thought and provided the ideas that shaped the system.
- Businessmen and Owners: The bourgeoisie and landlords. They provided economic strength because they had high incomes.
- Military: The army provided strength and tended to occupy high positions in the politics of the moment.
- This minority had access to positions of responsibility. They were called active citizens, while the rest were passive citizens who enjoyed the overall progress but did not direct it.
- In general, the liberals were wary of the populace, and from an economic point of view, they imposed capitalism, with the consequent exploitation of the poor by the rich.
The Cortes of Cadiz: Constitution of 1812
While the Spanish people fought, a group of more than 200 members met in Cortes in Cadiz. How did this reunion of Cortes come about? Ferdinand VII had ordered the celebrations in his name.
The reformist elements, that is, the Liberals, saw an opportunity when they heard about that meeting. Because of the absent and forbidden king, they wanted reform and saw a chance to achieve it. Gradually, members arrived in Cadiz, many of them alternates who could not attend for the headlines due to the situation in the country.
At the Cortes of Cadiz, three ideological currents can be observed:
- Conservative: Those who did not want reforms, believing that Spain did not need to be transformed for the better.
- Renewal: Those who accepted some reforms but without breaking with tradition.
- Innovative: Those who opposed everything old and tried to create a new Spain.
Although innovators (liberals) were in the minority, they would prevail because they were the most combative, perhaps the smartest, those with a more complete vision, and those who ended up winning almost all discussions.
First, political reform was held, and national sovereignty was proclaimed, along with the separation of powers and certain liberties such as freedom of the press.
A constitution was adopted, which is the basic element of Spanish liberalism because it placed the assembly above the King. It is the work of intellectuals and, therefore, difficult to apply to practical life.
There were also institutional reforms: councils disappeared except for the State Council, ministries first appeared, and Spain was divided into provinces.
As a member reform, the estates were dissolved, the bonds of union between lords and vassals were removed, privileges were eliminated, all Spanish were equal before the law, everyone paid taxes according to their wealth, and the Church lost many of their rights and privileges.
Finally, economic reform was carried out, which granted all kinds of freedoms, such as freedom of culture, freedom of pricing, freedom of contract, freedom of transport, and so on.
Ferdinand VII (1814-1833)
- Six-Year Absolutist Period (1814-1820)
- Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
- Absolutist Decade (1823-1833)
Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
Liberalism, theoretically approved in the Cortes of Cadiz, would be tried in public life. Although most of the Spanish were not liberal, it was thought that perhaps the new government would act better than the failed governments of Ferdinand VII.
So, in 1820, Ferdinand VII swore to uphold the Constitution of 1812.
But liberals soon became discredited. The theory of the constitution was very difficult to implement in practice, and liberals argued among themselves and barely engaged in governing. Also, they soon divided into two groups: moderates (conservative) and exalted (progressive).
First, the moderates ruled because they had more prestige and more resources, but the extremists mounted a violent opposition, leading to their rise to power in 1822.
A realistic faction intended to return to absolute monarchy, which had the support of the King, the Church, and the peasants. The Liberals had the support of the bourgeoisie and the army. This conflict was resolved when the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis, a French army, entered Spain and placed Ferdinand VII back on the throne, restoring absolute monarchy.