Spanish Restoration: Politics, Society, and Crisis
Political Parties and Bipartisanship
The political system, created by Canovas del Castillo, was dominated by two dynastic parties: the Conservatives and the Liberals. In 1885, Canovas and Sagasta signed a pact to strengthen the monarchy and ensure their alternation in power.
Conservative Party
Founded by Antonio Canovas del Castillo, this party represented the landed aristocracy, financial bourgeoisie, and Catholic hierarchy. It evolved from moderate liberals and unionists, adopting an authoritarian stance.
Liberal Party
Led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, this party represented the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie, middle class, and civil servants. Its ideology advocated for liberal social reforms, education, and some secularism.
Other parties, including Carlists, Republicans, regionalists, nationalists, and the labor movement, were excluded from the political system.
Caciquismo and Electoral Fraud
The system relied on electoral fraud and caciquismo (local political bosses) to maintain the alternation of power. The monarchy remained neutral, avoiding identification with any specific party.
To ensure the shift in power, caciques manipulated elections, altering census data and coercing voters. The king appointed governments, and the prime minister called elections to secure a parliamentary majority. Caciques used their influence to rig elections, ensuring the desired outcome.
The Restoration regime maintained political stability and a social order that benefited the ruling classes (nobility, financial and industrial elite, military, and church), while excluding the working class.
Social Issues and the Labor Movement
To combat exploitation, the labor movement emerged, focusing on two fronts: union demands for improved working conditions and political action through parties.
Socialist Workers’ Movement
Two main currents represented the working class: anarchism and Marxism. Marxist thought began spreading in Spain in 1871 with Paul Lafargue. This led to the formation of the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) and the UGT (General Workers’ Union), founded by Pablo Iglesias.
Anarchist Labor Movement
Anarchism held significant influence among the working class and peasantry, particularly in Barcelona. Key anarchist organizations included the Spanish Regional Federation of the AIT, the Federation of Spanish Region (FTRE), Solidaridad Obrera, National Confederation of Workers (CNT), and Iberian Anarchist Federation (FAI).
Military Issues
Military Action in Morocco
From 1906, the Spanish government engaged in colonial action in North Africa, driven by economic interests and a desire to restore Spain’s international prestige. This led to conflicts with Berber tribes, who resisted Spanish presence in Ceuta and Melilla. The Spanish army was largely composed of working-class conscripts, while the wealthy could avoid service through payment.
Military Intervention in Politics
Throughout the 19th century, military intervention was a recurring factor in Spanish politics. The Restoration aimed to establish civilian control over the military, but this proved challenging, as evidenced by the later dictatorship of General Primo de Rivera.
The Crisis of 98
The Crisis of 98 was a moral and intellectual crisis sparked by Spain’s loss of its remaining colonies. It exposed the corruption and incompetence of the political system, highlighting Spain’s declining international status. This pessimism was reflected in the literature of the Generation of 98.
Joaquín Costa criticized the oligarchy and caciquismo, advocating for education and modernization. Economic development, particularly in agriculture and water management, was deemed essential.
The Generation of 98, including Unamuno, Azorín, Pío Baroja, Maeztu, Valle-Inclán, and Machado, expressed a pessimistic view of Spain and its future. Their intellectual and literary regenerationism influenced Spanish political life in the early 20th century.
Political opposition from Republicans, nationalists, and the labor movement presented various alternatives, ranging from revolution to a bourgeois republic. The Cuban War of Independence, led by José Martí, and the Philippine Revolution further weakened Spain’s position.