Spanish Restoration: Politics and Basque Nationalism
Principles of Restoration
The Spanish Restoration referenced the British two-party model, imposing an unusual parliamentary discipline. The political system was based on turnismo (rotation of power between two political groups): the Conservatives and the Liberals.
Constitution of 1876
The courts were called to develop the new constitution by universal suffrage. However, this was a formality, as a system to capture votes had already been developed. Before debates began, Cánovas established premises considered essential for the monarchy. To place the political parties above, he appealed to an “internal constitution”—the monarchy and courts as institutions prior and superior to any written text due to their tradition in the Spanish kingdoms.
The Constitution established an imperfect separation of powers, giving the king the power to appoint the head of government. It vaguely recognized basic political freedoms and established a bicameral Parliament with a Senate composed of life and right Senators. Although initially based on census suffrage, it later transitioned to universal suffrage. The Constitution assumed a state religion but allowed the private practice of other religions. It was promulgated on June 30, 1876, and remained in force until 1931.
Political Practice: Turnismo and Bipartisan Chiefs
Cánovas’ model was based on the British parliamentary tradition of Victorian England and the French monarchy of Louis Philippe of Orleans (1830). For stability, Cánovas based it on two supports: shared sovereignty of the King and Parliament, and the practice of turnismo (two official parties accepting constitutional legality, alternating in government, thus avoiding military coups).
How did turnismo function? When the monarch withdrew confidence in the government (with prior agreement between party leaders), the opposing party prepared to call elections, which they were expected to win. The other party agreed to “lose” the election (through counterfeiting and electoral fraud).
To make the system work, electoral rolls were prepared by party notables, and mechanisms ensured victory in the provinces. Electoral law determined that in districts with only one candidate, they were elected without a vote. In others, caciques (local bosses) intervened in negotiations between the government and provincial civil governors to deliver votes.
The planned party won, renewing Congress and numerous positions. A reasonable number of seats were granted to the opposition to keep them within the political game. Dynastic parties prevented meaningful representation of Republicans, Socialists, and Nationalists, who were beyond the means of achieving power.
Factors explaining this system include:
- Lack of public interest in the party system and elections
- Economic backwardness
- Dependency between peasants and landowners
- Illiteracy
Political Parties: Conservative and Liberal
Political parties were not as we know them today. They had few members, distinguished guests, and lobbyists, and were controlled by networks of influence from Madrid to each province and from the civil government to local chiefs. Some political parties existed outside the system but received few votes and fewer seats. The system was based on the “non-existence of third parties.”
Conservative Party
Its formation began during the presidency, inheriting from moderate unionists in the 1869 Constituent Assembly. They moved to the opposition in 1871. During the First Republic, Cánovas del Castillo emerged as the party chief. After 1884, as head of government, he placed members of the haute bourgeoisie, aristocracy, and high-ranking officials in government positions. Regionally, it received support from the ruling classes of southern Spain and the middle classes of the Atlantic and Levant.
Liberal Party
It originated from the Constitution Party formed during the reign of Amadeo I of Savoy, uniting left-wing unionists (led by Serrano) and progressives (led by Sagasta). Sagasta, a supporter of the 1869 Constitution, was open to collaboration with the new regime based on common goals: victory over the Carlists and the Cuban insurrection. The fusion of all currents was agreed upon on May 2, 1880. Liberals came to power in February 1881. Their program was based on defending individual rights, universal suffrage, accountability of judicial authorities, the introduction of juries, and constitutional initiative.
Basque Nationalism
Three factors influenced its formation:
- A cultural movement to recover Basque culture
- The effects of the industrial revolution and immigration
- The Carlist defeat and cancellation of its charter
Two trends emerged: a radical nationalist movement advocating full recovery of jurisdictions (defense of Basque race, history, and language) and independence, and a more bourgeois, urban nationalist movement that accepted the abolition of privileges and sought protectionist legislation for Basque industry. Both trends were embodied by Sabino Arana.
Basque nationalism was significantly shaped by Sabino Arana, who combined elements of independence, defense of race and religion, claims of tradition, rejection of maketos (Castilians), and anti-Spanish sentiment with the proclamation of Basque independence. He coined the term Euskadi.
As in Catalonia, societies like the Sociedad Euskalerria promoted the recovery of the Basque language and culture, using the press for propaganda.
Arana’s ideas became a political project with the foundation of the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) in 1895. Part of the Basque ruling classes left the Restoration scheme and offered their support. Electoral victory came in early 1898. However, government repression slowed growth and led Arana to change his principles, forming a league of Spanish Basques. The early 20th century saw strong growth, with the mayor of Bilbao becoming a nationalist in 1907 and parliamentary representation achieved in 1915. The creation of Basque workers’ solidarity further broadened the movement.