Spanish Restoration: Political Stability and the Canovist System
Catering and Canovist System
The Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, with Alfonso XII as king, was initiated by a military coup led by General Martinez Campos in Sagunto on December 29, 1874. The monarchy lasted until the proclamation of the Second Republic on April 14, 1931. The reign of Alfonso XII was brief (1875-1885). His death led to the Regency of his widow, Maria Cristina of Hapsburg, until Alfonso XIII came of age in 1902, reigning until 1931. The period starting in 1875 is known as the Restoration. It was not only the monarchy that was restored in Spain but also doctrinaire Liberalism, which had been defeated in 1868. The conservative bourgeoisie and landowners who had supported the moderates returned to power. The most important feature of the period 1875-1902 is stability: there was no significant military coup, the Carlist uprising in the north was pacified, and the Constitution of 1876 had a long duration. In 1898, after the war in Cuba, the regime’s crisis began, deepening during the first third of the twentieth century.
1. The Canovist Restoration System’s Bases
The architect of the Restoration system was Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, who wrote the Sandhurst Manifesto. Alfonso XII signed this document, published in Spain a few days before Martinez Campos’s military coup. Cánovas was a pragmatic politician who had been leading supporters of Alfonso XII during the Democratic Sexenio. During those years, he attracted the political and social elites, including Carlists opposed to absolutism, the excesses of the Democrats, and the disorder of the Republic. His main achievement was giving the restored monarchy a liberal and authoritarian system. This system allowed the peaceful alternation of two political forces in government, right and left, both liberals. They did not resort to popular uprisings or the army to oust each other from power. Theoretical anti-system parties (Carlists, Republicans, Socialists, and Nationalists) were excluded, as were the masses, since election results were manipulated and fraudulent. The elements that constituted the Restoration’s political system were the pacification of the country, the Constitution of 1876, and the creation of parties adapted to the political game, taking turns in power.
A) The Pacification of the Country
The regime relied on the army to gain power through a coup and, subsequently, to pacify the country. The Third Carlist War ended in 1876 and the war in Cuba in 1878, providing successes for Cánovas. However, both conflicts led to several problems:
- Carlism was neutralized as a military force, but the abolition of privileges and institutions fueled Basque nationalism, although it retained the established fiscal autonomy in economic concerts.
- Cuba’s war ended momentarily but reignited in 1895, leading to the island’s independence after the war with the U.S.
B) The Constitution of 1876
After Alfonso XII’s arrival, a political committee prepared a draft constitution. Elections were held for Constituent Cortes, which approved it in February 1876. This constitution remained in force until 1931, the longest-running in Spanish history. The Constitution of 1876, inspired by Cánovas, copied the British model of parliamentary democracy: sovereignty is shared, residing in the courts with the king, parliament has two chambers, and there are two political parties. However, this model was subsequently undermined by the excessive intervention of the king and, ultimately, by the plurality of parties. Although the bill of rights (speech, assembly, and association) is very broad and similar to that of the 1869 Constitution, it restricts religious freedom to mere tolerance, declaring the Catholic religion as the state religion. The Cortes had a performance similar to the moderate Constitution of 1845, especially due to the significant participation given to the Crown. The Congress was elected, initially based on census suffrage and later, in 1890, on universal male suffrage. However, the Senate was chosen partly by the king and partly indirectly by the country’s largest taxpayers. There was no clear division of state powers. The king held executive power, appointing the Head of Government, and legislative power, as he could veto laws, take legal initiatives, and dissolve the Cortes. He was also Supreme Commander of the Army.
C) The Political Parties
To adhere to the British two-party model, Cánovas created a political party and encouraged the formation of another. Both would accept the rules established by the Constitution and alternate in government:
- The Conservative Party, led by Cánovas himself, inherited the legacy of moderate unionists, relying on the upper classes (nobility and gentry), and stood at the moderate liberal right.
- The Liberal Party, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, incorporated progressive and democratic ideals, based on the industrial bourgeoisie and part of the urban population, and stood at the liberal left.
Their ideological differences were not very well defined; both parties were representatives of political eclecticism. They established a peaceful shift, producing an alternation between parties, contributing to Spain’s stability. When a party had problems and lost the confidence of the Courts, it would step aside.
D) Turnismo, the Alternation in Government
During the Restoration, the Prime Minister was appointed by the king and needed a majority in Parliament to govern. If lacking sufficient parliamentary support, the king decreed the dissolution of Parliament and called elections. The ruling party could win, allowing it to continue governing. This process was the reverse of true democracy, where a majority is first obtained in elections and then the government is formed. To ensure their election victory, the Government manipulated the elections. The opposition agreed to wait their turn to gain power, thus criticizing the irregularities. From Madrid, the Ministry of the Interior (now the Ministry of the Interior) was responsible for monitoring the electoral process through the civil governors of each province and the caciques. Each cacique controlled a location or region. In elections, they mobilized their clients to obtain the maximum number of votes.