Spanish Monarchy & American Independence: 1810-1824
The Reign of Ferdinand VII and the Turmoil in Spain (1823-1830)
In April 1823, approximately 100,000 soldiers, known as the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis, under the command of the Duke of Angoulême, invaded Spanish territory and restored Ferdinand VII as absolute king. Alarmed by the constant turmoil in Spain, the restorative powers considered some moderate reforms necessary. However, Ferdinand VII rejected these proposals and, as in 1814, initiated a fierce crackdown on liberals. Many liberals were forced into exile to avoid death or imprisonment. The execution of Mariana Pineda in 1831 for embroidering a liberal flag became an emblem of Ferdinand’s repressive regime.
The monarchy’s other major concern was, once again, the economy. The Treasury’s difficulties, compounded by the permanent loss of the American colonies, necessitated tight control of public spending, as increasing revenue without affecting the nobility’s fiscal privileges was impossible. From 1825, the king, beset by economic problems, sought the cooperation of a moderate sector of the financial and industrial bourgeoisie in Madrid and Barcelona. This attitude increased the distrust of royalists and ultramontane sectors of the court. They were also discontented with the king because he had not restored the Inquisition and was not acting more forcefully against the liberals. In court, this sector gathered around Carlos María Isidro, the king’s brother and likely successor, given that Ferdinand VII had no children.
The Rise of Independence Movements in Spanish America
Throughout the 18th century, the Bourbons’ decisive concern for overseas territories had led to an era of prosperity based on the revival of trade. Economic growth fostered the development of a powerful native bourgeoisie. It was among this local bourgeoisie that ideas of emancipation from the metropolis took shape, and independent programs and projects were forged. These hopes were fueled by the discriminatory treatment of natives in colonial offices, heavy taxation, and Spain’s control over the economy, particularly trade. Furthermore, the example of American independence in 1776 was crucial in demonstrating that it was possible to confront the mother country and achieve victory. Britain, eager to control the American market, supported secessionist movements.
In 1808, during the War of Independence, the natives chose not to recognize the authority of Joseph Bonaparte and established juntas that, mirroring those in Spain, assumed power in their territories. However, although they theoretically remained loyal to Ferdinand VII, they did not acknowledge the authority of the Supreme Central Junta.
Phases of the Independence Struggle
- First Phase (c. 1810): Many regions declared themselves autonomous from the metropolis. The most openly secessionist outbreaks were:
- The Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata, where José de San Martín proclaimed Argentina’s independence in 1810.
- The Viceroyalty of New Granada and Venezuela, led by another major American independence leader, Simón Bolívar.
- Mexico, where the uprising was led by Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos.
- Second Phase (1814 onwards): After the end of the Peninsular War, Ferdinand VII’s government, instead of seeking an agreement with the Americans, responded by sending a substantial army. The monarchy’s intransigence towards colonial autonomy fueled the growth of the liberation movement.
San Martín crossed the Andes, defeated the Spanish at Chacabuco in 1817, and secured Chile’s independence in 1818. Bolívar laid the groundwork for the formation of Gran Colombia, which subsequently gave rise to the republics of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama. In Mexico, the independence movement, led by Agustín de Iturbide, managed to attract the support of the Church and the powerful classes, achieving independence from the metropolis in 1821.
The End of Spanish Rule in Continental America
Following the defeat at Ayacucho in 1824 and the independence of Peru and Bolivia, Spanish presence in continental America ended. Only the West Indies and the Philippines remained as Spanish possessions.
Consequences of Independence
- The dream of a united, strong, and cohesive America proved impossible. The interests of local warlords, the commercial bourgeoisie, and large landowners led to numerous wars and the fragmentation of the territory into multiple republics.
- The Creoles who had spearheaded the independence movement left the large indigenous, black, and poor populations to fend for themselves, leading to profound social upheaval in the following years.
- Political independence did not translate into economic independence. Spanish rule was replaced by the constant interference of Great Britain and the United States, who were the first to recognize the new nations.