Spanish Civil War: Military Revolt to International Impact
Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
1. The Military Revolt
a) The Preparation of the Military Coup
Military attempts to end the monarchical republic took place soon after its establishment. The uprising of General Sanjurjo in Seville (1932), an attempted coup involving right-wing politicians, failed. However, the Popular Front victory in 1936 accelerated coup plans. The conspiracy involved military, Alfonsine monarchists, Carlist politicians, Falangists, and members of the CEDA. They launched preparations in which the army would be the protagonist: Sanjurjo would lead the revolt from Lisbon, Franco in the Canary Islands, Yagüe in Morocco, Mola in Navarre, and Queipo de Llano in Seville. It was intended to be a general uprising.
Preparations for the military coup against the Republic were part of the increasing political tensions in Europe. In France, following the Popular Front victory in the elections, the French right grouped around fascist organizations. In Germany, Hitler violated the 1919 peace treaties of Versailles, began rearming, and made territorial claims in Czechoslovakia and Poland.
b) The Military Uprising
The uprising, using the murder of the monarchist deputy José Calvo Sotelo as an excuse, began in July 1936 in Melilla. Between the 18th and 20th, it was followed by a significant number of Captains-General in Spain. However, the coup was only partially successful. It succeeded in Morocco, the Canary Islands, Western Andalusia (including Seville), Galicia, Castilla-Leon, Navarre, and part of Aragon (including Zaragoza). The rest of the territory remained loyal to the Republic: Madrid, Catalonia, the Levant, and the Cantabrian coast.
The military uprising failed in large cities and industrial areas due to the action of militias armed by leftist parties and trade unions, and the confusion and passivity of the government headed by Giral. Popular resistance against the military uprising and in defense of the Republic transformed the coup into a civil war. The country was divided into two zones: the Republican and the Rebel. The territory loyal to the Republic concentrated industry and most of the population, but the government lacked instruments of defense, such as the army or aviation, retaining only the navy and the militias. The rebels retained elite units of the Moroccan army, the military organizational structure, and received substantial assistance in the form of men and war materials from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.
c) Military Operations
Progress Towards Madrid (July-November 1936)
The conquest of Madrid was a symbol of power for the Republicans. A lightning advance by the army against the militia led to the conquest of Badajoz (with significant bloodshed) and Toledo (lifting the siege of the Alcazar, which held symbolic value). The government decreed a general mobilization to save Madrid, leading to popular resistance and the transfer of the government to Valencia. Madrid was attacked from the front by militias, the International Brigades, and Soviet military aid (tanks). The resistance of Madrid marked the end of the militia war phase. Madrid held out until 1939.
The rebel army’s battles to isolate Madrid failed, including the Battle of Jarama in 1937 and the Battle of Guadalajara, also in 1937. A new phase of the war began, with armies facing each other. The Republic created the Popular Army of the Republic, dissolving the militias, while Franco engaged in a war of attrition.
The Occupation of the North (1937)
With the failure to conquer Madrid, Franco focused his offensive on the north (Asturias, Cantabria, and the Basque Country) due to its mineral resources and heavy industry. The military advance concluded with the conquest of Bilbao, preceded by the bombing of Guernica. With the conquest of the north, Franco’s army controlled one of the main economic regions of Spain.
The Move to the Mediterranean (1937-1938)
Republican attempts to reverse the course of the war failed, including the Battle of Teruel. The Republican losses at Teruel were followed by the advance of Franco’s army, which reached the Mediterranean. This divided the Republican territory into two isolated areas: the center, with Madrid and Valencia, and northern Catalonia, with Barcelona.
In the summer of 1938, the main battle of the Civil War, the Battle of the Ebro, took place (lasting approximately 5 months). The offensive launched by the Army of the Republic triumphed in the early fighting, but the superiority of Franco’s army in men and material resulted in the failure of the offensive. The episodes following the Battle of the Ebro in 1939 covered the collapse of the Republican army in Catalonia. The conquest of Barcelona occurred in January, followed shortly by a breakthrough to the French border.
The End of the War (February-April 1939)
Only the central area around Madrid remained. The uprising led by Casado, aimed at negotiating with Franco, ultimately sank any remaining resistance. The war ended on April 1, 1939.
2. Impact of the Civil War on the World
The Civil War polarized international public opinion. Conservative political groups regarded it as a response to the radicalization of the Republic, which they believed was evolving into a Soviet-style (communist) revolution. Democratic and leftist public opinion interpreted the war as a defense of democracy and freedom against fascism, in opposition to the powers in Spain.
International involvement was varied. In August 1936, the International Tea Committee met in London. England advocated for non-intervention in the conflict and suggested that a non-intervention agreement be signed by the other participants. Non-intervention, in practice, meant leaving the Republic without support, while Germany and Italy sent fully equipped army corps, artillery, aviation, weapons, and men to the rebels. The Republic received support from the Soviet Union, but it was more limited, focusing on aviation, tanks, and military advisers. Mexico also helped with weapons. Notably, around 60,000 volunteers formed the International Brigades, composed of anti-fascist volunteers from around the world who came to defend the Republic.