Spanish Civil War: Causes, Key Events, and Outcomes
The Spanish Civil War
VIII. The Road to War
The February 1936 elections failed to quell political unrest. Both the right and the left adopted increasingly radical positions. The UGT and CNT trade unions, acting jointly, promoted numerous strikes against the perceived bourgeois government. Street fights, murders, and church burnings became commonplace, transforming violence into the primary political weapon. The assassinations of Lieutenant Castillo and Calvo Sotelo further fueled the escalating tensions and ultimately accelerated the military uprising that ignited the Civil War.
Following the elections, right-wing leaders and high-ranking military officers unsuccessfully attempted to prevent the transfer of power to the Popular Front government. Consequently, they plotted to overthrow the government through a military coup led by Sanjurjo, Franco, Goded, and Mola. While CEDA wasn’t directly involved, other political forces, including traditionalists and Falangists, supported the coup. Although the government downplayed the threat, they took some preventative measures, such as placing suspected officers under surveillance and transferring key figures like Franco to the Canary Islands, Mola to Pamplona, and Goded to the Balearic Islands. Despite these precautions, the coup erupted on July 17, 1936, dividing Spain and plunging the nation into civil war.
The National Army, led by Franco, boasted a large contingent of professional soldiers from North Africa, while the Republic relied on younger, less experienced soldiers. The war lasted three years and witnessed numerous battles for control of the country.
Key Battles and Events
In the early stages, Franco’s troops advanced from the south, capturing Toledo and then, with General Mola’s assistance, attempting to seize Madrid. These attempts failed, prompting Franco to shift his focus to the northern front, aiming to cripple the Republic’s primary source of revenue. After securing key northern regions, the Nationalist army advanced south through the Ebro Valley, capturing Catalan cities until Barcelona fell on January 26, 1939. During their advance towards Valencia through the Ebro basin, the Nationalist army was attacked by Republican forces on July 25, 1938, resulting in the devastating Battle of the Ebro for the Republic. Madrid fell on March 28, 1939, effectively ending the war on April 1.
Political Developments
In early 1936, Franco was appointed head of all armies and granted full powers. He established a Technical Board, which functioned until the formation of a state government on January 30, 1938. This government also assumed legislative powers. Prior to this, in April 1937, Serrano Suñer unified the Carlists and Falangists into the FET de las JONS, which Franco subsequently controlled. The Falange significantly influenced labor and social policy, as evidenced by the 1938 Labor Law.
In September 1936, Largo Caballero’s government attempted to consolidate state power with the support of most Republican forces, dissolving committees and militias. After the fall of Malaga, the PCE proposed measures to strengthen state authority, but these clashed with the CNT’s ideals. The ensuing unrest weakened Caballero’s support. The subsequent Negrín government prioritized political centralization and the Popular Front. As Nationalist forces advanced, Negrín and the Communists advocated for negotiations with Franco.
International Involvement
The Civil War attracted international attention, leading to the creation of the Non-Intervention Committee in 1936. Despite this, the Republican side received support from Mexico and the USSR, which sent military aid and the International Brigades. France also clandestinely supplied arms. The Nationalist side received support from Italy, Germany, and Portugal. Many US companies also provided resources to the Nationalists despite official neutrality. Numerous intellectuals also supported both sides, including Hemingway and Malraux for the Republic, and Campbell and Pound for the Nationalists.
Consequences of the War
The war caused a deep social division that persisted long after the conflict ended. The human and material costs were immense, with nearly a million lives lost and Spain incurring international debts of 35 billion pesetas.