Spain’s Transformation: From Monarchy to Republic (1917-1931)
Spain’s Path to Revolution (1917-1923)
After 1917, Spain entered a revolutionary period, marked by the disintegration of the Cánovas system. Intense social unrest, including strikes, characterized the years between 1917 and 1923. Workers achieved benefits like the 8-hour workday and regulated wages. Both the CNT and the UGT, along with the PSOE, rejected affiliation with the Third International. A minority group within the Young Socialists subsequently founded the Communist Workers Party of Spain in 1921.
Two key events worsened the political climate: the assassination of Prime Minister Eduardo Dato and the “Annual Disaster” in the Moroccan War. Following the coup of September 13th, King Alfonso XIII tasked Primo de Rivera with forming a government, ushering in an authoritarian regime. The dictator abolished the parliamentary system, the 1876 constitution, and dissolved Parliament, effectively ending the Restoration system.
The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship (1923-1930)
The Primo de Rivera dictatorship initially enjoyed support from the military’s “neutral body,” the Church, and even the King. The dictatorship unfolded in two phases:
- Military Directory (1923-1925): This period focused on achieving social peace, maintaining public order, and establishing a centralized government at the national, provincial, and municipal levels. Crucially, it successfully concluded the Moroccan War with French assistance in the Alhucemas landing.
- Civil Directorate (1925-1930): Primo de Rivera incorporated civilian politicians into the government, with José Calvo Sotelo emerging as a prominent figure. The dictatorship touted its achievements, including social, economic, and political advancements.
Achievements of the Dictatorship
- Social: Joint committees of workers and employers effectively regulated employment, gaining support from the PSOE and the collaboration of Socialist leader Largo Caballero.
- Economic: To address the post-war crisis, the dictatorship implemented interventionist policies, increasing tariff protection and promoting domestic production. A robust public works program created a network of roads, improved railways, and addressed water management through hydraulic confederations. Tourism also saw growth.
- Political: The regime attempted to establish a single party with fascist influences, the Patriotic Union, and drafted a new constitution. The failure to implement this constitution marked a significant setback for Primo de Rivera.
The Great Depression and the Fall of the Dictatorship
The economic downturn starting with the Great Depression of 1929 severely impacted Spain. Businesses closed, unemployment rose, and criticism mounted. Coupled with the failure to deliver a new constitution, Primo de Rivera, isolated and demoralized, resigned on January 30, 1930, and went into exile in Paris, where he later died.
The End of the Monarchy and the Dawn of the Second Republic
The fall of the Primo de Rivera dictatorship in January 1930 triggered a chain of events that led to the downfall of the monarchy. Alfonso XIII’s support for Primo de Rivera, seen as a violation of the 1876 constitution, weakened the monarchy. Following Primo de Rivera’s resignation, the King appointed General Dámaso Berenguer to lead a “soft dictatorship” aimed at restoring constitutional normalcy. Berenguer ruled by decree and expanded the call for elections to a Constituent Cortes.
Republican, socialist, and Catalan leftist politicians signed the Pact of San Sebastián to overthrow the monarchy. Meanwhile, the Republican Alliance gained momentum, uniting military personnel and intellectuals like Ortega y Gasset. Berenguer, viewed as a despot, resigned in February 1931. King Alfonso XIII then appointed Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar to form a government with members of the old dynastic parties. Municipal elections in April 1931 resulted in a Republican victory. The Republic was proclaimed in Eibar and Barcelona. King Alfonso XIII, advised by Romanones, abdicated and went into exile.
The Primo de Rivera regime’s unique attempt to establish a stable, constitutional dictatorship ultimately failed. While some viewed it as a period of social peace and economic progress, it failed to garner widespread support and prevent the political and social deterioration that led to the end of the monarchy and the subsequent Civil War. The Second Spanish Republic, proclaimed on April 14, 1931, was met with enthusiasm by many Spaniards who hoped for regeneration and modernization.