Spain’s Restoration: The Cánovas Era & Bipartisanship

Posted on Dec 4, 2024 in History

A New Political System: The Cánovas Era

Martínez Campos’s pronouncement in 1874 marked the restoration of the monarchy with Alfonso XII. Cánovas del Castillo took the regency, aiming not to return to the era of Isabella II, but to articulate a new political model. This model sought to overcome the problems of previous liberal governments, particularly the favoritism shown towards moderates. To achieve this, Cánovas set two main goals:

  • Develop a constitution that would establish a political system based on bipartisanship.
  • Pacify the country by ending the war in Cuba and the Carlist conflict.

The Constitution of 1876

The first political step was convening elections for a Constituent Assembly. The resulting Constitution of 1876 is a clear example of doctrinaire liberalism, characterized by:

  1. Shared sovereignty between the Courts and the Senate.
  2. Suffrage based on census (although universal male suffrage was adopted in 1890 under the Liberal Party).
  3. A centralized state.
  4. A constitutional monarchy. The king held significant powers, including veto and the ability to summon, suspend, or dissolve the courts.
  5. Bicameral courts (Senate and Congress).
  6. A Catholic confessional state (with funding provided to the Church).
  7. A bill of rights (although subject to many restrictions in practice).

The constitution was markedly conservative, upholding traditional monarchy, religion, and property rights.

The Turno System

Cánovas introduced the turno pacífico, an alternation in power between two dynastic parties: the Conservatives and the Liberals. This system aimed to:

  1. Ensure institutional stability.
  2. End military intervention in politics.

The army was subordinated to civilian power but granted autonomy over internal affairs and a substantial budget. This arrangement aimed to eliminate pronouncements and the military’s political influence.

End of Armed Conflicts

  • Military intervention led to the Carlist surrender, resulting in the abolition of privileges in Navarre and the Basque Provinces.
  • The Cuban insurrection (Ten Years’ War, 1868-1878) ended with the Peace of Zanjón, which included amnesty, the abolition of slavery, and promises of reform. However, the failure to fully implement these reforms led to further conflicts: the Guerra Chiquita (1879) and the uprising of 1895.

The System in Practice

The dynastic parties were led by:

  • Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, the first leader of the Conservative Party.
  • Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, who led the Liberal Party, formed from progressives, unionists, and moderate Republicans.

While both parties drew support from economic elites and agreed on fundamental ideologies, they differed in some aspects:

  • Conservatives: Favored political immobility, census suffrage, and defense of the Church.
  • Liberals: Advocated social reform, universal suffrage, and secularism.

A tacit agreement existed between the parties to avoid enacting laws that the other party would immediately repeal upon returning to power. The turno aimed to maintain institutional stability. When the ruling party lost the Crown’s confidence, the monarch would invite the opposition leader to form a government.

Electoral Distortion and Caciquismo

The turno system persisted for over two decades due to:

  1. Caciquismo: Local bosses exerted significant influence, directing votes according to the wishes of authorities (particularly civil governors) who protected their interests.
  2. Electoral manipulation: This included census manipulation, favorable treatment of rural districts over urban areas, vote buying, and even violence. This system of manipulation is known as pucherazo.

For example, high illiteracy rates (over 70%) in certain regions facilitated the existence of caciques who controlled rural communities and decided votes.

Development of the Party System

The system’s first crisis arose with Alfonso XII’s death in 1885. This led to the Pact of El Pardo between Liberals and Conservatives, supporting Maria Cristina’s regency to ensure the monarchy’s continuity against Carlist and Republican pressure. The Liberal Party governed for an extended period under Sagasta, implementing reforms inspired by the 1868 revolution:

  • Law of Associations (1887)
  • Abolition of slavery (1888)
  • New Civil Code (1889)
  • Universal male suffrage (although undermined by electoral fraud and corruption)

Cánovas returned to power in the 1890s until his assassination in 1897. The system deteriorated due to the parties’ reliance on their leaders’ personalities, leading to internal dissent and the decline of both parties.