Spain’s Restoration Era (1875-1923): Bourbon Dynasty Returns
Introduction: The Bourbon Restoration in Spain
The Restoration signifies the return of the Bourbon dynasty to the Spanish throne after the First Republic. This era, spanning from General Martínez Campos’s pronouncement to Miguel Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship, comprises three phases:
- The reign of Alfonso XII (1875-1885)
- The regency of Maria Christina of Austria (1885-1902)
- The reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1923)
The term “Restoration” truly applies only to the first two phases. The final phase witnessed a systemic crisis, unraveling Cánovas’s system. Cánovas del Castillo is considered the key figure of the Restoration. His influence led to Isabella II’s abdication in favor of her son, Alfonso XII.
Cánovas’s project relied heavily on the army’s support and international recognition from France, Britain, Prussia, and the Holy See. His 1874 Sandhurst Manifesto outlined the principles of the future monarchy and publicized the restoration project under Alfonso XII. General Martínez Campos’s subsequent pronouncement in Sagunto solidified the Bourbon restoration under Alfonso XII. Cánovas, however, preferred a peaceful restoration driven by public opinion, rather than a potentially destabilizing pronouncement.
Characteristics of the Restoration
Upon his triumphant entry into Madrid in 1875, Alfonso XII quickly gained popularity, bolstering the new system. The political system was designed and implemented by Cánovas del Castillo, with Sagasta’s assistance. Key considerations for understanding this period include:
The Underlying Rationale
- Overcoming the previous period’s political instability and achieving national pacification.
- Synthesizing old and new, combining progressive ideals with Spanish tradition.
- Establishing civilian authority over the military.
- Forging a pact among political forces for peaceful coexistence.
The Basic Pillars
The system rested on four pillars:
- The King: Shared sovereignty with the Cortes within a parliamentary, hereditary monarchy. The King held significant powers, including command of the armed forces, dissolving the Cortes, and appointing the head of government.
- The Cortes: Shared sovereignty with the King. It was a bicameral legislature.
- The Constitution of 1876: The legal foundation of Cánovas’s system. Its ambiguous wording allowed parties to implement their programs without constitutional changes, contributing to its longevity. Key features included shared sovereignty, executive power exercised by the King through ministers, legislative power vested in the Cortes and the King, an independent judiciary, unified legal codes, individual rights of progressive liberalism, a bicameral Cortes (Congress directly elected, Senate with members by right, royal appointment, and corporate representation), and Roman Catholicism as the official state religion with religious freedom.
- The Pacific Turnismo: Cánovas established a system of peaceful alternation between two parties: the Conservative Party (led by Cánovas, supported by the gentry, aristocracy, army, landowners, and officials) and the Liberal Party (led by Sagasta, supported by the middle bourgeoisie). Both parties were expected to respect the work of their predecessors.
Operating System of the Turnismo
While the alternation of power was intended to be election-driven, the turnismo operated differently. Power was transferred periodically by mutual agreement, based on pre-determined election outcomes. The process involved the King granting power to the pre-agreed head of government, who then administered the electoral process. The ruling oligarchy in Madrid decided which party would govern and instructed the provinces and municipalities. Municipal elections and other local councils were renewed before the selection of Cortes deputies. The Minister of the Interior orchestrated the “encasillado” (pre-selection of deputies), and civil governors manipulated elections in agreement with local bosses.