Spain’s Restoration Crisis and Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1902-1930)
ITEM XII: The Crisis of the Restoration (1902-1923)
1. Introduction: Socio-Political Situation in Spain in the Early Twentieth Century
In 1900, Spain was still an agrarian country, which meant the rural population lived in poverty. This delay must be added to the unequal distribution of wealth, especially land. This situation led to the development of a very vindictive worker and peasant movement. This delay was also cultural, with very high illiteracy rates (56% of men and 72% of women were illiterate). This situation allowed the existence of a corrupt political system dominated by despotism. Finally, Spain, in the early twentieth century, had a serious military problem, with an army humiliated by the defeat of 1898, ill-equipped in arms, and with an excess of chiefs and officers.
2. Political Developments: The Regenerationist Phase
a) Government of Maura: Revolution from Above and Tragic Week
The disaster of 1898 created disappointment and left a clear sense of pessimism around the country. In 1902, Alfonso XIII came of age, and politicians, influenced by regenerationist currents, tried to solve the remaining problems.
The company required a “regeneration” of the country based on ethical standards in governance, state reform, wealth building, and encouragement of public education.
Maurismo (1903-1909) was the second regenerationist attempt (the first dealt with some problems like budgetary equilibrium, social policy, the creation of the Ministry of Public Education, and openness to decentralization). Maura was the new leader. Maura represented authoritarian reformism. But during his first term, Maura failed to realize his agenda:
The Growth of the Opposition: The crisis in Catalonia after 1898 favored the development of Catalan politics. The Regionalist League (Lliga Regionalista), breaking the chieftaincy, achieved significant electoral success in Barcelona. The force rivaling the Lliga was the Radical Party, which attacked the conservative nature of the Lliga. There was a tactical approach of the Socialists to Republicans to oppose the right-wing politics of Maura. In 1909, the Socialists and Republicans formed a coalition. Anarchism remained divided. Persistent attacks and bombs (against Maura and Alfonso XIII) occurred. A century earlier, workerism reorganized (CNT in 1910).
The Rif War and the Tragic Week: The Spanish presence in Morocco responded not only to the protection of Ceuta and Melilla but also to various interests: the army sought to rebuild its reputation after the disaster of 1898, to give Spain a role of “colonial power,” and to exploit rich deposits. Due to attacks by the Riffians, the government mobilized Maura’s army.
In Barcelona, a peaceful general strike against the war was called. The peaceful protest degenerated into a riot, not only uncontrolled in Barcelona but also in other locations. At last, the troops sent by the government ended the revolt.
The Crisis of 1909: The impact of the Tragic Week led to a clash between the right and left that brought about the resignation of Maura’s government and the end of peaceful coexistence between conservatives and liberals. The king removed his trust in Maura and instructed Moret to form a new government.
b) Government of Canalejas: The Liberal Version (1910-1914)
The liberal Canalejas replaced Moret in 1910, but until 1912, he also did not have the success expected in his attempt to reform. Canalejas undertook a new regenerationist attempt based on the strengthening of civilian power without harming the interests of the Church.
The reform agenda of the Liberals failed. The assassination of Canalejas in 1912 opened a struggle for leadership of the party, which split into rival groups (supporters of Romanones and García Prieto). A similar process occurred in the Conservative Party.
a) Impact of World War I
Spanish neutrality had a significant impact on the Spanish economy: the need to feed themselves and the ability to export to belligerent countries. The Spanish economy took off. There was also a strong accumulation of capital and a large increase in profits, with a capitalist development model based on a small group of banks. Eventually, the process was purely speculative.
b) Crisis of 1917
The division and discrediting of the dynastic parties brought the system of the Restoration to its final crisis in 1917. The authoritarian attitude of the Dato government facilitated the convergence of Catalanists, reformers, Republicans, and Socialists. On July 19, they demanded the government call for a Constituent Assembly. They demanded changes in the system of promotion and required economic improvement (middle class). However, the workers’ left wanted to go further, with a revolutionary general strike to form a provisional government. The assembly of reformers condemned the strike, which allowed the government to use the army to quell the protest. The political crisis of 1917 ended with the formation of a concentration government.
“Concentration Government”
a) Governments of Concentration and Social Upheaval
The period from 1917 to 1923 was characterized by the presence of a powerful labor movement. Cambó participated twice in concentration governments. Social conflict also became widespread in agricultural areas. This was due to an intransigent attitude of employers’ organizations to combat the labor movement and the revolutionary euphoria of unions and workers’ parties that were thrown into considering a final bout for social emancipation.
b) The Annual Disaster and its Aftermath
In the Rif, 12,000 Spanish soldiers died. The leftist opposition demanded an explanation. Given this critical situation, some in the army decided to intervene and take control of power, leading to a coup that would end 47 years of operation of the Constitution of 1876.
3. The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
The coup of Primo de Rivera had the tolerance of the King and the enthusiastic support of employers’ organizations and the extreme right. Primo de Rivera aimed at creating a new political system inspired slightly by Italian fascism.
3.1. Fascistic Regime
The new regime suspended the constitution, banned political parties and unions, and removed all elected officials.
The attempt to consolidate the dictatorship of a corporate, institutionally undemocratic regime failed. Over time, the opposition to the dictatorship expanded considerably. The military dictatorship resolved the question of the Rif. The successful landing of Alhucemas (1925) allowed them to control the whole territory of the Protectorate by the summer of 1927.
3.2. Economic Policy
The dictatorship stressed some of the basic trends of capitalism of the first third of the 20th century:
- Economic nationalism
- Monopolistic practices
- Financial concentration
- State interventionism
The dictatorship began a series of measures to improve the country’s infrastructure: building roads, expanding the network of railways, and a hydraulic plan that entailed both increased irrigation and electrification. Public education received a boost.
The years of dictatorship were, overall, years of economic growth. But, in return, the public works policy exacerbated the crisis of the Treasury, the multiplication of debt, and the sudden drop in the price of the peseta.
The arrival of the Great Depression (1929) caused much of the employers’ organizations and the army itself to stop supporting the regime. Lacking this support, the dictator resigned on January 28, 1930.